CHAPTER 3

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND

PROCESSES
3.1 Heat, work and total energy of a system

3.1.1 Heat:

 Heat

− Heat is defined as the form of energy that transfers between a system

and its surroundings (or between 2 systems) because of a
temperature difference.

− Heat that transfers to a system is signed positive, and heat that

transfers from the system is signed negative.

2
 Calculation of heat

 Calculation of heat based on temperature change

- Specific heat C: Amount of heat supplied to a unit of matter (kg, m3 or kmol) to

change its temperature by 1 degree, c= dq/dT.

+ unit of C depending on unit of matter used;

c - J/(kg.K), for mass; gas mixture c = gici
C’ - J/(m3.K), for volume; gas mixture C’ = riCi’
C - J/(kmol.K), for kmol; gas mixture C = riCi)

+ c may depend on temperature: c = a0 + a1T

Average c from T1 to T2: c= a0 + a1.(T1 + T2)/2

+ c depends on characteristics of process:

cv for constant volume process,
3
cp for constant pressure process.
- Calculation of heat:

From c = dq/dT for 1 unit of matter

 dq = c. dT
And q1,2= c.dT

 Calculation of heat based on entropy change:

From the definition of entropy for unit mass: ds = dq/T,

® Heat transfer for 1 unit mass
dq = Tds
And q1,2 =  Tds

4
3.1.2 Work
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

In thermodynamics, we are interested in work relating to working fluid: Expansion

work, Flow wok, External work

 Expansion work Piston

dv
Consider a cylinder having piston of area A and 1 kg
p dx
of gas filled inside. Gas
Cylin der
When the gas expands due to heating, the piston
shall undergo displacement of dx under pressure p. Heating

The expansion work done of gas:

dw = F · dx
= p·A · dx = p·dv
 w = p·dv

If dv>0 (v increases), w>0 means work is created by the system.

If dv<0 (v decreases), w<0 means the system receive work from surroundings
5
 Flow wok: A v

For an open system (flowing fluid), some p

F
work (flow work) is required to push the 
mass into and out of the control volume.
b

For the volume of 1 kg of mass with cross-sectional area A and length b,

the flow work can be calculated as:
wFlow = F.b = p.A.b = pv (J/kg)

dwFlow= d(pv)

6
 External wok:

Is the part of expansion work of the system which is used to overcome

the external load exerting on the system.

- For open system, it is equal to the difference between expansion work

and the flow work:
dwexternal= dw – dwFlow
= pdv –d(pv) = - vdp
Wexternal = -vdp

- For the closed system, dwFlow=0,  if friction is ignored,

dwexternal = dw = pdv

7
3.1.3 Total energy of a system

In thermodynamics, it does not normally consider electric, magnetic,

chemical and nuclear energy.

The energy of interest includes internal energy U), kinetic (KE), potential
(PE) and flow work for open system.

 The total energy E of a closed system:

E = U + KE + PE = U + m2/2 + mgz for a body of mass

e = u +  2/2 + gz for 1 kg of mas

For closed system, the change of velocity  and PE is normally small compared
to U,
 it can consider:
E = U
and e = u
8
 The total energy E of an open system:

The total energy of a flowing fluid for unit mass will include the flow work:
e = u + pv +  2/2 + gz
h = u + pv is defined enthalpy
 e = h +  2/2 + gz

With small change in velocity  and elevation z, then

e = h

9
3.2 The first law of thermodynamics for closed system
Statement of the law: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but rather
transformed from one form to another.

In fact, the 1st law is known as the principle of conservation of energy.

 Energy balance of a system:

Heat Thermodynamic Work

System

Q – W = Efinal – Ebeginning = Esystem

where Q = Qin – Qout; W = Wby system – Won system

Q is total heat transferred to (+) and from (-) the system
W is total work done by (+) and on (-) the system. 10
 Expressions for the first law of thermodynamics

 For a closed system that does not move with a velocity and has no change in
elevation

- For a body of mass:

Q – W = U
or Q = U + W

- For 1 kg of mass
q = u + w

- For a mass element:

dq = du + dw
Interaction work dw here is expansion work dw = pdv
 dq = du + pdv

11
 Expression of 1st law for ideal gas
 consider constant volume process:
dq = du + pdv = du +0
dq = du
cvdT= du  u = cvdT
Where cv= (du/dT)v is specific heat at constant volume, can determined based
on experiment.

 consider constant pressure process:

dq = dh -vdp = dh+ 0
dq = dh
cpdT= dh  h = cpdT
Where cp= (dq/dT)p is specific heat at constant pressure, can determined
based on experiment.
 Thus, first law of thermodynamics for unit mass of ideal gas:
dq = cvdT + pdv

Or dq = cpdT - vdp 12
 Specific heat relations of ideal gas:

As known: h = u +pv = u +RT

 dh = du + RdT

cpdT = cvdT + RdT

 c p= c v + R (J/kg.K)
And Cp =Cc + R

Specific heat ratio k, defined as:

k = cp/cv
As a result, we also have:
cv = R/(k-1)
cp =Rk/(k-1)

For gas with 1 atom in molecule), k=1.667

For gas with 2 atom in molecule), k=1.44
For gas with 3 atom in molecule), k=1.29 13
3.3 Basic processes of ideal gas
 Constant volume process or isochoric process

V2 = V 1

T2/T1 = p2/p1

dQ = dU + pdV

= +

W1-2 = = 0

Q1-2= U2-U1 = mcv(T2 – T1)

14
¨ Constant pressure process or isobaric process

p2 = p1
V2/V1 = T2/T1

dQ = dU + pdV

= +

W1-2 = = p(V2 – V1)

Q1-2= mcv(T2 – T1) + p(V2 – V1)

= mcv(T2 – T1) + mR(T2 – T1)

with then
Q1-2 = mR(T2 - T1)

15
¨ Constant temperature process or isothermal process

T = T1

 p1V1 = p2V2 = constant, or

p=

dQ = dU + pdV

Q1-2 = = +

dU = mcvdT = 0

W1-2= = p1V1 ln = p1V1 ln ,

Where = is called compression ratio

Q1-2 = W1-2 = p1V1 ln  16

¨ Adiabatic process (Isentropic process)

p1V1k= p2V2k = constant

And Q1-2 = 0

note that pV = mRT

® TVk-1 = constant

® T2=T1()k-1

dQ = dU + pdV = 0

Q1-2 = +

W1-2 = = = -U1-2 = mcv(T1- T2)

17
 (p =constant)
¨ Polytropic process
(T =const.)

pVn = constant
(V =constant)
n = k, adiabatic process

Note that pV = mRT  TVn-1 = constant  T2=T1()n-1

dQ = dU + pdV
Q1-2 = = U1-2 + L1-2 = +

 U1-2 =mcv(T2 -T1)

 W1-2 = = =
Note that R =cv(k-1)  W1-2 =

Q1-2 = mcv(T2- T1) + = mcv(T2- T1)

18
¨ Polytropic process

pV n = constant
n is polytropic index (–∞ to
+∞)  conditions of process.

(p =const.)

(T =const.)

(V =const.)
n = k, adiabatic process

Some typical cases with different values of n

19
 Brief of processes PV n
 constant
No Val. of n Process Description Result of IGL Work

1 ∞ isochoric const. vol. (V1 = V2) P1 P2

T1  T2
2 0 isobaric const. pres. (P1 = P2) V1 V 2
T 1 T2
3 1 isothermal Const. temp. (T1 = T 2) P 1V 1  P 2V 2

4 1<n< k polytropic -none-

5 k Isentropic (S1 = S2)

(Adiabatic)

20
¨ In brief

k k k
k
k

k
k

k 21
22
¨ Excersises
1) Figure shows a system comprising of gas in cylinder at
pressure of 689 kPa. Fluid expands from a volume of
0.04 m3 to 0.045 m3 while pressure remains constant.
Paddle wheel in the system does a work of 4.88 kJ on the
system. Determine (a) work done by system on the piston
(b) the net amount of work done on or by the system.
2) A gas at 65 kPa, 200°C is heated in a closed, rigid vessel till it reaches to 400°C.
Determine the amount of heat required for 0.5 kg of this gas if internal energy at
200°C and 400°C are 26.6 kJ/kg and 37.8 kJ/kg respectively.

Solution
3) A closed system of mass 2 kg undergoes an adiabatic process. The work done on
the system is 30 kJ. The velocity of the system changes from 3 m/s to 15 m/s.
During the process, the elevation of the system increases 45 meters. Determine the
change in internal energy of the system.

25
4)

26
27
5)

28
29
3.4 The first law of thermodynamics applied to an open system

mout

(Control volume ,CV)

min

A
p
m1,1, v1 CV
m2,2, v2

dx

There is mass flow across their boundaries.  the conservation of mass

and the conservation of energy for control volume are applied. 30
 The principle of conservation of mass
(Total mass (Total mass Net change in mass
entering CV, min) - leaving CV, mout)
= within CV, mCV

min - mout = mCV

 The principle of conservation of energy

(Total energy (Total (Total (Net change

crossing + energy of - energy of = in energy of
boundaries as mass mass CV,
heat and work: entering CV, leaving CV, ECV
Q – W) Ein, mass) Eout, mass)

Q – W + Ein, mass - Eout, mass = ECV

31
 The steady flow process
The fluid properties can change from point to point within the control
volume, but at any fixed point they remain the same during the entire
process (no change with time).

- Conservation of mass:
(Total mass entering (Total mass leaving CV
CV per unit time ,in) = per unit time, out)

in = out = = constant (kg/s)

= .A.  = A.  = constant  = +

For incompressible gas:  = constant

 = - and =
For compressible gas: d/=1/(M2-1).dA/A 32
- Conservation of energy:

(Total energy crossing (Total energy transported (Total energy transported

boundaries as heat and
work per unit time:
+ into CV with mass per
unit time,
= out of CV with mass per
unit time,
–) out, ) in)

– = out - in

For single stream:

– = h2 – h1 + + g(z2-z1)]

- Some steady flow engineering devices: Nozzles and diffusers, turbines

and compressors, throttling valves, mixture chambers, eat exchangers…

33
- For steady flowing fluid with no change in  and z

- For a body of mass

Q – Wexternal = H

or Q = H + Wexternal

- For 1 kg of mass
q = h + w

- For a mass element:

dq = dh + dwexternal

Interaction work here dwexternal= pdv – dwflow= pdv – d(pv) = -vdp

 dq = dh - vdp
34
3.5 Some processes of gas and vapour in engineering devices

35
3.5.1 Flow process in nozzle and diffuser

• Nozzle - device that increases the

velocity of a fluid at the expense of
pressure.
• Diffuser - device that increases the 1 2>>1
pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
• Commonly utilized in jet engines,
rockets, space-craft and even
garden hoses. 1 2<<1
• Q = 0 (heat transfer from the
fluid to surroundings very small)
W = 0 and ΔPE = 0

36
Energy balance (nozzle & diffuser):
. . .  in 2  . . .  2

Qin  Win  m   in   Qou  Wou
2 gz   t
m  houtout  2out  gzout 
 in h 
in in
t
out
 
Q =0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0

.   2 .    out2 
m in h in
  2   m out h out
in
2 

Steady flow
1 2>>1

  2  22 
1 
 h1     h2 2  1 2<<1
 2  
37
3.5.2 Processes in turbine and compressor

 Turbine – a work producing device through the expansion of a fluid.

 Compressor (as well as pump and fan) – a device used to increase

pressure of a fluid and involves work input.

 Q = 0 (well insulated), ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0 (very small compare to

Δenthalpy).
38
 Energy balance for turbine

. . . in 2 . . .   2

Qi  Win  m
in h 
  in   Qou  Wou
2 gz   t
 m  h  out  gz 
2
n in in
t out
out out
 ou

.

Q =0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0

. .

m in
h  W out 
m out
h
in
 out 
Steady flow

.
W out . m h1  h2

39
 Energy balance for compressor, pump and fan

   out 
. . . 2 . . . 2

Qi  Wi  m   in
  Qou  Wou m houtout 2 
 ou

n n in h 
in in
in
gz  t t
out
 gz t 
2.
Q =0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0

. .
W in 
m in
h   h
m out out
in
 
Steady flow

. .
W in  m  h2  h1

40
3.5.3 Gas mixing processes in a mixing chamber (MC)

 MC is the section where the mixing process takes place.

3
For example, an ordinary T-elbow
or a Y-elbow in a shower serves
as the mixing chamber for the
cold- and hot-water streams. 2

41
 Mass balance:

m1 + m2 = m3

 Energy balance:

m 1 · h1 + m 2 · h2 = m 3 · h3

m1 · cp · T1 + m2 · cp · T2 = m3 · cp · T3

42
3.5.4 Process in heat exchanger (HE)

- HE is a Device where two moving fluid

streams exchange heat without mixing.

- HE involve no work interactions (W = 0)

and negligible kinetic (KE=0) and
potential energy changes (PE=0) for
each fluid stream.

- Energy balance

A 1Ah + Bh1B = Ah2A + Bh2B

A (h1A – h2A) = B(h2B – h1B)

43
4
4
3.5.5 The unsteady flow process

Unsteady flow process is a process, in which the properties change

continuously as the process proceeds

For example, process of filling or emptying mi me

a vessel.

 Conservation of mass:

or

45
 Conservation of energy: mi me

If the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible, then:

46
Exercise 1

Steam at 0.4 MPa, 300ºC, enters an adiabatic nozzle with a low velocity
and leaves at 0.2 MPa with a quality of 90%. Find the exit velocity.

Summary

=0 V2 = ?
Solution:

48
Exercise 2
In a nozzle air at 627°C and twice atmospheric pressure enters with
negligible velocity and leaves at a temperature of 27°C. Determine
velocity of air at exit, assuming no heat loss and nozzle being horizontal.
Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K for air

Solution

Applying steady flow energy equation with

inlet and exit states as 1, 2 with Q=0 and
W=0:

Given that, negligible inlet velocity, C10

Given, T1 = 900K, T2 = 300 K

Exercise 3
An inelastic flexible balloon is
inflated from initial empty state to a
volume of 0.4 m3 with H2 available
from hydrogen cylinder. For
atmospheric pressure of 1.0313 bar
determine the amount of work done
by balloon upon atmosphere and
work done by atmosphere.

Solution

Displacement work
Exercise 4
Air at 10°C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a
velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air
leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared with the
inlet velocity.
Determine: (a) the mass flow rate of the air and
(b) the temperature of the air leaving the diffuser

Summary

V2 = 0

=?

T2=?

51
Solution

52
Exercise 5

53
Solution

saturated

54
Exercise’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’
Compressed air bottle of 0.3 m3 volume contains air at 35 bar, 40°C. This
air is used to drive a turbo-generator supplying power to a device which
consumes 5 W.
Calculate the time for which the device can be operated if the actual
output of the turbo-generator is 60% of the maximum theoretical output.
The ambient pressure to which the tank pressure has fallen is 1 bar. For
air,  = 1.4.

Summary

P1 = 35 bar P2 = 1 bar
V1 = 0.3 m3 V2 = 0.3 m3
T1 = 40oC T2 = ?
m 1= ? m2 = ?
Assume the air expansion in the bottle from 35 bar to 1 bar to occurs isentropically
with =1.4
55
Solution

56
 Problems
1. A gas at 65 kPa, 200°C is heated in a closed, rigid vessel till it reaches to
400°C. Determine the amount of heat required for 0.5 kg of this gas if
internal energy at 200°C and 400°C are 26.6 kJ/kg and 37.8 kJ/kg
respectively.
2. Carbon dioxide passing through a heat exchanger at a rate of 50 kg/hr is to
be cooled down from 800°C to 50°C. Determine the rate of heat removal
assuming flow of gas to be of steady and constant pressure type. Take cp =
1.08 kJ/kg K.
3. A system comprising of a gas of 5 kg mass undergoes expansion process from
1 MPa and 0.5 m3 to 0.5 MPa. Expansion process is governed by, p.v1.3 =
constant. The internal energy of gas is given by, u = 1.8 pv + 85, kJ/kg. Here
‘u’ is specific internal energy, ‘p’ is pressure in kPa, ‘v’ is specific volume in
m3/kg. Determine heat and work interaction and change in internal energy.
4. A gas contained in a cylinder is compressed from 1 MPa and 0.05 m3 to 2
MPa. Compression is governed by pV1.4 = constant. Internal energy of gas is
given by U = 7.5 pV – 425, kJ. where p is pressure in kPa and V is volume in
m3. Determine heat, work and change in internal energy assuming
compression process to be quasi-static. Also find out work interaction, if the
180 kJ of heat is transferred to system between same states. Also explain, 57
5. Determine the heat transfer and its direction for a system in which a perfect
gas having molecular weight of 16 is compressed from 101.3 kPa, 20°C to a
pressure of 600 kPa following the law pV1.3 = constant. Take specific heat at
constant pressure of gas as 1.7 kJ/kg.K.
6. In a nozzle air at 627°C and twice atmospheric pressure enters with
negligible velocity and leaves at a temperature of 27°C. Determine velocity
of air at exit, assuming no heat loss and nozzle being horizontal. Take CP =
1.005 kJ/kg.K for air.
7. An air compressor requires shaft work of 200 kJ/kg of air and the
compression of air causes increase in enthalpy of air by 100 kJ/kg of air.
Cooling water required for cooling the compressor picks up heat of 90 kJ/kg
of air. Determine the heat transferred from compressor to atmosphere.
8. An inelastic flexible balloon is inflated from initial empty state to a volume
of 0.4 m3 with H2 available from hydrogen cylinder. For atmospheric
pressure of 1.0313 bar determine the amount of work done by balloon
upon atmosphere and work done by atmosphere.

58
9. In a gas turbine installation air is heated inside heat exchanger upto 750°C
from ambient tempera- ture of 27°C. Hot air then enters into gas turbine with
the velocity of 50 m/s and leaves at 600°C. Air leaving turbine enters a nozzle
at 60 m/s velocity and leaves nozzle at temperature of 500°C. For unit mass
flow rate of air determine the following assuming adiabatic expansion in
turbine and nozzle, a) heat transfer to air in heat exchanger
b) power output from turbine
c) velocity at exit of nozzle.
Take cp for air as 1.005 kJ/kg°K.
10.One mol of air at 0.5 MPa and 400 K, initially undergoes following processes,
sequentially
a) heating at constant pressure till the volume gets doubled.
b) expansion at constant temperature till the volume is six times of
initial volume.
Determine the work done by air.
11. Determine the work done by gas for the arrangement shown in Fig. 3.39.
Here spring exerts a force upon piston which is proportional to its
deformation from equilibrium position. Spring gets deflected due to heating
of gas till its volume becomes thrice of original volume. Initial states are 0.5
MPa and 0.5 m3 while final gas pressure becomes 1 MPa. Atmospheric
pressure may be taken as 1.013 × 105 Pa. 59
12.A closed insulated container has frictionless and smooth moving insulated
partition as shown in Fig below such that it equally divides total 1 m3 of
volume, when both the gases are at initial pressure of 0.5 MPa and ambient
temperature of 27°C. Subsequently the nitrogen is heated using electrical
heating element such that volume of N2 becomes 3/4 of total volume of
container. Determine, (i) final pressure of hydrogen, (ii) Work done by
partition, (iii) Workdone by N2 and H2 (iv) Heat added to N2 by electric heater.

13. A cylinder of 2 m3 has air at 0.5 MPa and temperature of 375°K. Air is released
in atmosphere through a valve on cylinder so as to run a frictionless turbine.
Find the amount of work available from turbine assuming no heat loss and
complete kinetic energy being used for running turbine. Take Cp, air = 1.003
kJ/kg . K, Cv, air = 0.716 kJ/kg . K, Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg . K.
14. A rigid and insulated tank of 1 m3 volume is divided by partition into two
equal volume chambers having air at 0.5 MPa, 27°C and 1 MPa, 500 K.
Determine final pressure and temperature if the partition is removed.
15.An evacuated bottle of 0.5 m3 volume is slowly filled from atmospheric air
at 1.0135 bars until the pressure inside the bottle also becomes 1.0135 bar.
Due to heat transfer, the temperature of air inside the bottle after filling is
equal to the atmospheric air temperature. Determine the amount of heat
transfer. [U.P.S.C., 1994].
16.A compressed air bottle of 0.3 m3 volume contains air at 35 bar, 40°C. This
air is used to drive a turbogenerator sypplying power to a device which
consumes 5 W. Calculate the time for which the device can be operated if
the actual output of the turbogenerator is 60% of the maximum theoretical
output. The ambient pressure to which the tank pressure has fallen is 1 bar.
For air, k= 1.4.

61
17. 3 kg of air at 1.5 bar pressure and 77°C temperature at state 1 is
compressed polytropically to state 2 at pressure 7.5 bar, index of
compression being 1.2. It is then cooled at constant temperature to its
original state 1. Find the net work done and heat transferred.

18.A compressed air bottle of volume 0.15 m3 contains air at 40 bar and
27°C. It is used to drive a turbine which exhausts to atmosphere at 1 bar. If
the pressure in the bottle is allowed to fall to 2 bar, determine the amount
of work that could be delivered by the turbine.

62
19. Two tanks are connected by a valve. Tank A contains 2 kg of
carbon monoxide gas at 77°C and 0.7 bar. Tank B holds 8 kg of
the same gas at 27°C and 1.2 bar. Then the valve is opened
and the gases are allowed to mix while receiving energy via
heat transfer from the surrounding. The final equilibrium
temperature is found to be 42°C. Determine (a) the final
pressure (b) the amount of heat transfer. Also state your
assumption. [P2=105
kPa, Q =+37.25 kJ]
20. A piston cylinder device contains 0.2 kg of water initially at 800
kPa and 0.06 m3. Now 200 kJ of heat is transferred to the water
while its pressure is held constant. Determine the final
temperature of the water. Also, show the process on a T-V
diagram with respect to saturation lines.
[ 721.1oC]

63
21. 3. A piston-cylinder device contains 6 kg of refrigerant-134a at 800
kPa and 50oC. The refrigerant is now cooled at constant pressure
until it exist as a liquid at 24oC. Show the process on T-v diagram
and determine the heat loss from the system. State any assumption
made. [1210.26 kJ]

22. 4A m3 rigid tank contains refrigerant-134a initially at 200 kPa and 40

. 105

percent quality. Heat is now transferred to the refrigerant until the

pressure reaches 800 kPa. Determine (a) the mass of the refrigerant
in the tank and (b) the amount of heat transferred. Also, show the
process on a P-v diagram with respect to saturation lines. [12.3
kg, 2956.2 kJ]
23. 5. An isulated tank is divided into two parts by a partition. One part of
the tank contains 6 kg of an ideal gas at 50°C and 800 kPa while the
other part is evacuated. The partition is now removed, and the gas
expands to fill the entire tank. Determine the final temperature and
[50°C, 400 kPa]
the pressure in the tank.
64 6
4
24. 6. A mass of 0.15 kg of air is initially exists at 2 MPa and 350oC.
The air is first expanded isothermally to 500 kPa, then
compressed polytropically with a polytropic exponent of 1.2 to
the initial state. Determine the boundary work for each process
and the net work of the cycle.

25. 7. 0.078 kg of a carbon monoxide initially exists at 130 kPa and

120oC. The gas is then expanded polytropically to a state of 100
kPa and 100oC. Sketch the P-V diagram for this process. Also
determine the value of n (index) and the boundary work done
during this process.
[1.248,1.855 kJ]

65
26. Four kg of water is placed in an enclosed volume of 1m3. Heat is
added until the temperature is 150°C. Find (a) the pressure, (b) the
mass of vapor, and ( c ) the volume of the vapor.
27. A piston-cylinder device contains 0.1 m3 of liquid water and 1 m3 of
water vapor in equilibrium at 800 kPa. Heat is transferred at constant
pressure until the temperature reaches 350°C.
(a) what is the initial temperature of the water,
(b) determine the total mass of the water,
(c) calculate the final volume, and
(d) show the process on a P-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

28. For a specific volume of 0.2 m3/kg, find the quality of steam if the
absolute pressure is (a) 40 kPa and ( b ) 630 kPa. What is the
temperature of each case?
29. Water is contained in a rigid vessel of 5 m3 at a quality of 0.8 and a
pressure of 2 MPa. If the a pressure is reduced to 400 kPa by cooling
the vessel, find the final mass of vapor mg and mass of liquid mf.

66
67
3.6 Processes of moist air (Psychrometrics)

Psychrometrics is the “Study of systems involving mixtures of dry air

and water vapour, i.e., moist air”, for example, air-conditioning
systems.

 For temperature range -10oC to 50oC, air can be assumed as an ideal

gas, and

cp(dry air ) 1.005 kJ/kgK;

 cpT
hdry air

 At 50oC, Psat (water)  Pg@50C  12.3 kPa, below this pressure,

water vapour (in the superheat region) is an ideal gas with error <
0.2%). Then,
hv(T,low P)  hg(T)
68
 Parameters of moist air

• Total pressure of air

Dalton’s Law: P  Pa  Pv

The mixture obeys ideal gas equation of state

P 
NRT 
m(R /M)T

V V
• Partial pressures

Dry Air N a R T
Pa  

ma(R /Ma)T
V
Water vapour Pv N RT

V v  
mv(R /Mv )T 69
V
• Specific humidity (or humidity Ratio ) 

 is the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air
(kg water vapour per kg dry air)

P
mv V/(R T) P /R  0.622
ω  v v
 v v
 Pa
Pv
Mv Pv ma PaV/(RaT) Pa /Ra
Use P  Pv  MaPa
Pa Pv
   0.622
P  Pv
If air is saturated with moisture,

Pg
 sat  0.622
P  Pg
Pg is saturation vapour pressure at a given temperature, Pg@T.
70
• Relative humidity 

-  Is the ratio of the mole fraction of vapour in the mixture, yv, to

the mole fraction of vapour in a saturated mixture, yg at the
same mixture pressure and temperature

 yyv |T,P 
Pv
|  1
g
Pg T,P

Pg  Psat
@T

- Relation between specific humidity  and relative humidity  :

Pv   Pg

0.622P 0.622 Pg
 P P v 
P 
v
Pg 71
 T-v diagram for water vapour in an air-water mixture
AIR-WATER VAPOUR MIXTURES (PSYCHROMETRICS)

Pg
• Constant pressure 1-2:
T Dew point (Point.2) -
V = constant Pv
The air-vapour mixture
temperature at which
vapour condenses when it
is cooled at constant
pressure.
P1 = constant 4 1 Tdp = Tsat@Pv
Mixture Temp
P2 = constant
• Constant volume 1-3: If
Typical state of
2 water vapour the mixture is cooled at
in moist air constant volume,
saturated moist air 3 condensation would begin
at Piont.3 (with a lower
temperature than dew
point)
v
• Constant temperature 1-4: If water is added to mixture until saturation occurs
(called saturated air) the vapour will have a partial pressure equal to the
saturation vapour pressure at the mixture temperature, Pg = Psat@TPt.4 (values
of vapour pressure are available from Table -properties of saturated water) 72
Example 1. Amount of water vapour in room air
Known: Air of known volume (75 m3) at 1 bar, 25oC; Relative
humidity = 75%
Determine: (a) Partial pressure of dry air,
(b) specific humidity,
(c) moist air enthalpy per kg dry air,
(d) masses of dry air and water vapour

(a) Pa  P  Pv

Pv   Pg   Psat@ 25C  (0.75)(3.169)  2.38 kPa

 Pa  (100  2.38)  97.62 kPa

(b) 0.622Pv  0.0152 kg H2O/ kg dry air

 P  Pv

(c) h  ha   h v  (1.005)(25)  (0.0152)(2547.2)

 63.8 kJ/kg dry air 73

(d) Va  Vv  Vroom  75 m3

m 
P aV a  (97.62)(75)  85.61 kg
a

Ra T (0.287)(298)
mv   ma  1.3 kg

Additional Question: What is the dew point temperature of the

moist air?

Tdp  Tsat @ v  Tsat @ 2.38 kPa  20C

P
(Tsat is determined by looking at steam table at pressure Pv)

74
 Adiabatic SATURATION
ADIABATIC saturation process (isometric
PROCESS ANDenthalpy):
WET BULB TEMPERATURE

• Let unsaturated air pass over a

long insulated pool of water.
Some water then evapourates
into air stream.
 Air moisture increases but
temperature decreases due to
latent heat required for
vapourization.

• If pool is long enough, the air

stream exits at a saturated
condition. The temperature then
is called adiabatic saturation
temperature, T2. 75
75
• Determining specific humidity and relative humidity with adiabatic
saturation temperature
Mass balance

Dry air: a1  a2  a

Water vapour: v1 f  v2

m
 f  v2  m

v1
since  
m
Energy
mbalance
 (  m v
a 2 a
1)
Ein   Esys  0  Ein 
Eout Eout 
 H1  H added vapour
H2
m a(ha1  1hg1)  m a(2 1)hf 2  m a(ha2 
2hg2 )
76
Rearranging for 1:
c pa (T2  T1)  2(hg2  hf
1 where
2) (hg1  hf 2 ) hg1 (T1 ), hf 2(T2), hg2 (T2 )

Specific humidity  can be determined by T1 and adiabatic saturation

temperature T2

 is calculated with  = 1 in the relation equation between specific

and relative humidity

Pg2  Psat@T 2  0.622 Pg2 since 2 = 1

2 P  Pg2

Relative humidity 1 can be determined by the relation:

1 0.622 1pg1 where Pg1  Psat@T

P  1 1

p g1
77
 Measuring specific humidity with wet-bulb temperature

• In practice, wet bulb temperature Twb is

used to approximate the adiabatic
saturation temperature (error < 0.25oC).

• Twb is measured by a thermometer covered

with a wet cotton wick. When exposed to a

moving unsaturated air wet stream, the
evaporation of the water in the wick causes
a depression in temperature as compared
to a dry bulb, similar to the adiabatic
saturation process.
• A practical device is the sling psychrometer, that creates the air
flow by moving the thermometer. 78
 The psychrometric chart

• Is a graphical representation of the properties of moist air.

• It allows visualisation and calculation of mass and energy balances

for specified psychrometric processes.
• It is used extensively in air-conditioning applications.

• Basic features:

- Dry bulb temperature

- Wet bulb temperature
- Relative humidity lines and saturation line
- Specific humidity
- Moist air enthalpy

• The chart is made based on the total air–water vapour pressure of 1 atmosphere
(101 kPa).

• For other pressures, calculations must be carried out to obtain the relative
humidity, specific humidity, and enthalpy.
79
Ashrae psychrometric chart

80
8
1
Example 2 ( Using psychrometric chart)
Assume that the outside air temperature is 32°C with a relative humidity φ = 60%. Use the
psychrometric chart to determine the specific humidity ω, the enthalpy h, the wet-bulb
temperature Twb, the dew-point temperature Tdp, and the specific volume of the dry air v.
Indicate all the values determined on the chart.
Answer:
ω = 18 g-moisture
/kg-air,
h = 78 kJ/kg-air,
Twb = 25.5°C,
Tdp = 23°C,
v = 0.89m3/kg.

82
 Application 1: Cooling, dehumidification, and reheating

How to get comfortable air (desired

temperature and humidity)?

• In hot, humid climates, dehumidification can be achieved by

cooling moist air to its dew point and removing the condensate.
• Then the resulting saturated air can be heated to raise the dry
bulb temperature to a desired and comfortable level. 83
 • Cooling, dehumidification, and reheating

Cooling coil Heating coil

1 2
 3
m r

 2100%
Moist air T3  T2
T2  T1
 3 2 
 2 1
m a, T1, 
1 1
P  1 atm Outdoor air
m f

Condensate-saturated at T2 3
2=100%
Supply air
P
 Pvg |
T ,P T2 T3 T1 84
Mass balance

Dry air:

m a1  m a2  m a3 
m
m a
v/
Water vapour:
m a
1-2
m v1  m f m  m a( 1 
2-3 
 2
 m v2 f 23)

H1  H2  Hf
 
m v2  Emin v3E out
Energy balance: Qo
ut

1-2 (m aha1  m v1hv1)  (m aha2 
 Qout
 Q
m v2hv2o)  m hf pa(T1  T2 )  (1hg1  2hg2 )  (2 
m af[C


2-3
ut
1)hf ]
H2  Qin  H3 Qi  (m aha2  m
n h )
v2 v2
 (m h  m
a a3
85
v3 hv3 )
 Example 3
Cooling coil Heating coil
Known:
1 2 3
State 1 (Outdoor air) m r

P1  1 atm T1  28C  100% 2

Moist air T3  T2
1
 0.7
m a , T1, 1
T2  T1
 3  2
 2 1
P  1 atm
V  50
m 3
State/min(air)
2
State 1 State 2 State 3
P2  1 atm m  f

Condensate-saturated at T2
 21.0 2 3
Determine:
State 3 (Supply air)
P3  1 atm T3  m f , T2 , Qout ,
24C Qin 86
 0.4
State points:
To find 2 and T2

State 1:

P1  1 atm T1  28 0C 0.7
1 (AV )1  50 m3/min

Pa1  Pv1 
Pa1(AV )1
Pv1 ma  RaT1  56.35 kg/ min

Pv1   1Pg (T1)
1

m v1 P
 1  0.622 v1  0.01691
m Pa1
a

m a m v1  1 87
State 3: 30.4 Pv3  3Pg (T3)
P3  1 atm T3  24 0C 3

Pa3  P3 
Pv3
m v3 Pv3  0.007516 v3  3

3  0.622 m a
m Pa3   m
a
Mass balance: Water vapour
Dry air
1-2 cooling 2-3 heating

m  m
 m a1  m a2  m a3 m v1  m v2
v m
f2
a m v2  m v3
 m f 2  m v1  m v3  (1  3) m a  0.529
kg/min
State 2: 2 1  2  3 0.00751

2  0.622 Pg2  Pg2  T2  9.6C 88

P2  Pg2
Energy balance: H1  H2  Hf
Ein  Qo
ut
Eout

Cooling coil:
Qo  (m aha1  m v1hv1)  m v2hv2 )  m f
ut

(mmah a2 a1  ha2 )  (1hv1  
a[(h 2 )  (1  2 )hf 2
22hhf v2
)]

 m a[Cpa(T1  T2 )  (1hg1  2hg2 )  (1 

2 )hf 2 )]
Re-heater:
Ein  H2  Qin  H3
 2385.9 kJ/min
Eout
Qin  (m aha3  m v3hv3)  (m aha2 
m v2hv2 )

 m a[(ha3  ha2 )  3(hv3  hv2 )]

 m a[Cpa(T3  T2 )  3(hg3  hg2 )] 89

Example 4

Moist air at state (1)

needs to be changed to
state (3) as shown in the
graph beside. Show how
to do so and determine
(a) moisture removal, (b)
cooling energy. (c) heating
energy.

Answer:
(a)=11.5g-H20/kg-dry-air,
(b) qcool = 48kJ/kg-dry-air,
(c) qheat = 10kJ/kg-dry-air.

90
Example 5
Outside air at 35°C and 60% relative humidity is to be conditioned by cooling and
heating so as to bring the air to within the "comfort zone". Using the
Psychrometric Chart neatly plot the required air conditioning process and
estimate:
(a) the amount of moisture removed,
(b) the heat removed, and
(c) the amount of heat added.

91
 Application 2: adiabatic mixing

In air-conditioning applications, to save energy fresh outdoor air is

often mixed with the room return air adiabatically, before being
supplied to the room.

Outdoor
Air

Room Return Air

Assumptions: Steady flow, KE=0, PE=0 92

Mass balance: Since
Air
m a1  m a2 

Vapour m a3

m
 m v11m
m   m a2  3m
v2  2
 a1
m
Energy
v
balance: H1  H2  H3
 a m v3 a3 Ein 
Eout
(m a1ha1  m v1hv1)  (m a2ha2  m v2hv2 )  m
Substituting from mass balance equation:
a3ha3  m v3hv3

m a1(ha1  1hv1)  m a2(ha2  2hv2 )  (m a1  m a2 )(ha3 

3hv3)
Using expression for air enthalpy ha & water vapour enthalpy hv
ha  Cp T
m  T3)  m a2Cpa(T2 
hv   (m  a1 1 mT
a1Cpa(T
3)  m a11hg1  m
hg 93
a2 )3hg3
a22hg2
Using Psychrometric Chart (P= 1atm)

Mass balance:

Air m a1  m a2  Vapour 1m a1  2m a2  3

m a3
Energy balance:
 m a3

m a1h1  m a2h2  m a3h3

Substituting from mass balance

equation
m  2 3 h h
 h2  h3
a1
m
3 1 3 1

a2
The enthalpy of moist air (kJ/kg dry air)

h  CpT  hg

Air enthalpy Vapour enthalpy

94
Example 6 (adiabatic mixing)

Saturated air leaving the cooling section of an air-conditioning system

at 14℃ at a rate of 50 m3/min is mixed adiabatically with outside air at
32℃ and 60 % relative humidity at a rate of 20 m3/min. Assuming
that the mixing occurs at a pressure of 1 atm, determine the specific
humidity, relative humidity, dry-bulb temperature and volume flow
rate of mixture.

Source: McGraw Hill (8) Source: McGraw Hill (8)

95
 Assumptions:
• Steady flow
• Ideal gas
• Adiabatic mixing
• Negligible KE and PE changes

Since Pm = 1atm, use the Psychrometric chart to analyse

State points:

Tdb1  14o C 1 100% (sat.) v1  0.826 m3/kg dry air

Pt 1
h1  39.4 kJ/kg dry air 1  0.010 kg H20/kg dry air

Tdb2  32o C 2 60% v2  0.889 m3/kg dry air

Pt 2
h2  79.0 kJ/kg dry air 2  0.0182 kg H20/kg dry air
96
Mass flow rate:
V1 50
m a1    60.5
kg/min
v1 0.826

V2 20
m a2 
  
22.5 kg/min
v2 0.889

Mass balance:

m a3  m a1  m a2  83
kg/min
m v1  m v2   a1
1m  2m a2  3m a3

m v3  3 0.0122 kg H20/kg dry air

97
Mass flow rate:
V1 50
m a1 
   60.5
kg/min
v1 0.826

V 20
m a2  2
 
22.5 kg/min
v2 0.889

Mass balance:

m a3  m a1  m a2  83
kg/min
m v1  m v2  1m a1  2m a2  3m a3
m v3 3  0.0122 kg H20/kg dry air

98