GROUP A Presents…

THERMODYNAMICS
Lecturer: Dr. Ogwala
Course: PHY 101
EKOUNIMED
MEMBERS OF GROUP A
• Austin Flourish • Odusanya Oyinlola
• Ahmed Mustapha Muhammed • Akinyoola Ooreife
• Ojo Esther • Odebunmi Favour
• Lawal Khadijat
• Bamigbaye Mubarak
• Odusanya Sa’ad
• Babalola Mustapha
• Fadeyi Abdulrahmon
• Okeke Chinenye • Dada Mojolaoluwa
• Agbato Aisha
• Odedina Oyinlola
• Adebiyi-Ojo Kanyinsade
OUTLINE:
● Definition of Thermodynamics
● Systems, Surrounding, Boundary
● Types of Thermodynamic Systems
● Thermodynamic Processes
● Direction of Thermodynamic Systems
● First Law of Thermodynamics
● Second Law of Thermodynamics
● Heat Engines
● Applications of Thermodynamics in Medicine

2
 WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS?
Have you ever considered how a hot cup of tea cools after a few minutes or how ice
melts as the temperature rises? In Physics, this phenomenon occurs owing to heat or
energy transfer. The study of energy transfer in atoms or particles is known as
thermodynamics.
● Thermodynamics is the study of the inter-relation between heat, work and
internal energy of a system and its interaction with its environment. To be
specific, it explains how thermal energy is converted to or from other forms of
energy and how matter is affected by this process.
● Thermodynamics is only concerned with macroscopic (largescale) changes and
observations of heat.

4
SYSTEM, SURROUNDINGS AND BOUNDARY
● System is a region containing energy and/or matter that is separated
from its surroundings by arbitrarily imposed walls or boundaries. In a
thermodynamic analysis, the system is the subject of the investigation.
● Surroundings refer to the rest of space outside the system or the mass
or region outside the system. Everything external to the system is the
surroundings.
● Boundary OR wall is a closed surface surrounding a system through
which energy and mass may enter or leave the system.

5
SYSTEM, SURROUNDING AND
BOUNDARY
TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
There are three types of systems in thermodynamics: open, closed, and isolated.
1. Open System: An open system is one in which the
boundary allows exchange of energy and matter
between the system and its surroundings.
It is important to note that whenever the open system is
in an equilibrium state, no difference in temperature
exists across it.
Examples of open system include:
• A pool filled with water. Water may enter and exit it.
It can be heated using a wind heating and cooling
system.
• A refrigerator is another example of an open system
in thermodynamics. It takes in heat from the food
inside and expels that heat to the room (energy
exchange) while maintaining a lower temperature
inside. 7
TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
2. Closed System: A closed system is a system that can
only interchange energy with its environment as the
boundary of the system is sealed but not insulated. It
cannot exchange matter.
NOTE: The total amount of matter in a closed
thermodynamic system is constant while the energy is not
constant.
Examples of closed systems are:
• A sealed soft drink or water bottle is a closed system.
While you can exchange heat with the beverage (by
placing it in a warm or cold environment), the bottle
prevents the exchange of matter between the liquid and the
surroundings.
• A pressure cooker is a closed system where food is
cooked. Heat is applied to the cooker, and the pressure
inside increases, allowing for faster cooking. However, it
does not exchange matter with the environment during
cooking. 8
TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
3. Isolated System: An isolated system cannot
exchange matter or energy with its surroundings. The
walls of an isolated thermodynamic system are non-
conductive to heat and flawlessly reflect all radiation
and are impervious to all kinds of matter and forces.

Examples of isolated system are:

• A hot tea kept in a thermos flask is an
example of an isolated system.
• An adiabatic chamber is another
example.

9
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Whenever one or more of the properties of a system change, a change in the state of the system
occurs. The path of the succession of states through which the system passes is called the
thermodynamic process. Each has a unique trait that identifies it, and which is useful in analyzing
the energy and work change related to the process.

There are several specific types of thermodynamic processes that happen frequently in practical
situations and they include:

a. adiabatic process
b. isochoric process
c. isothermal process
d. isentropic process
e. quasi-static process
f. non quasi-static process
11
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
● ADIABATIC PROCESS: ((Greek word derived from
“Adiabatos” meaning impassable; “perfectly
insulated”) It is the thermodynamic process in which there is
no exchange of heat between the system and surroundings.
The system undergoing the process is perfectly insulated from
its environment. This does not mean that the temperature is
constant, but rather that no heat is transferred into or out from
the system. Here, the system’s internal energy changes solely
due to work done on or by the system.

It is expressed mathematically as;

(i.e. ΔQ = 0 during this process). ΔU = – W
(where ΔQ is change in quantity of heat, W is work done on or
by the system and ΔU is change in internal energy of the
system).

When a system expands adiabatically, W is positive (the

system does work) so ΔU is negative. When a system
compresses adiabatically, W is negative (work is done on the
system) so ΔU is positive.
12
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
ADIABATIC PROCESS EXAMPLES
• Adiabatic compression and expansion: One of the most frequently cited adiabatic
process examples is that of an air pump being used to fill a bicycle tyre. When you pump
air into the tyre, the air molecules inside the pump get compressed. This increase in
pressure results in an increase in temperature, hence the adiabatic heating. Conversely, if
you rapidly deflate a pressurized tyre, the air molecules decompress causing the air to cool
down rapidly, illustrating adiabatic cooling.
• Cloud formation: The concept of an adiabatic process helps elucidate the formation of
clouds. When warm, moist air rises, it expands due to decreased atmospheric pressure. This
expansion is an adiabatic process that results in a decrease in the air's temperature. When
the temperature drops to the dew point, the water vapour in the air condenses to form cloud
droplets.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

● ISOCHORIC PROCESS: (Greek word derived

from “isos” meaning equal/constant & “khora”
meaning space/volume) Isochoric process is also
known as an isometric, isovolumetric, or constant-
volume process. It is a thermodynamic process
occurring at a constant volume. This implies that
during this process no work is done on or by the
system. In such a process, the system's internal
energy change depends solely on the amount of heat
added or removed.

It is expressed mathematically as;

ΔQ = ΔU
Here, ΔU signifies the change in internal energy of
the system, Q symbolises the added heat. For an
isochoric process, there is no change of volume. 15
 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
ISOCHORIC PROCESS EXAMPLES
• The heating of water in a tightly sealed flask: Have you ever observed a metal or
glass water flask that is sealed tightly with a non-flexible lid? The volume of the
water and steam inside the flask remains constant, even if the temperature changes.
• The cooling or heating systems in vehicles: When the air conditioner or heater of
cars regulate the internal temperature, the air's volume, confined within the sealed
system, remains constant.
• Refrigeration and air conditioning systems: These devices operate by exploiting
alternating isochoric and isobaric processes to cool the air. The refrigerant gas,
when compressed at a constant volume, discharges heat to its surroundings, thereby
cooling down. The continuous repetition of this cycle ensures a constant supply of
cooler air within the system.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
● ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: (Greek word
derived from “isos” meaning equal/constant
& “therme” meaning heat) It is a
thermodynamic process during which the internal
energy of the system remains unchanged due to the
simultaneous transfer of heat in or out of it, ensuring
that the system's temperature remains constant.
Note: An isothermal process can only occur in an
idealized situation with theoretically perfect thermal
conductivity.

It is expressed mathematically as;

ΔQ = ΔW
This equation states that the change in heat (ΔQ) of
the system is equal to the work done (ΔW) by the
system.
17
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS EXAMPLES
• Boyle's Law: Boyle's Law states that at a constant temperature, the pressure of an ideal gas
is inversely proportional to its volume.
• Cooking Popcorn: As the popcorn kernel is heated, the water inside it turns into steam,
causing the pressure inside the kernel to increase while maintaining a constant temperature
for a while, marking an isothermal process.
• Cooking on a Stove: When you cook on a stove, the bottom of the pot maintains roughly the
same temperature, irrespective of how long or how high you heat it. This is an example of an
isothermal process as the stove continuously supplies heat, thereby maintaining the
temperature.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
● An isentropic process is a thermodynamic process in
which the entropy of a system remains constant. In an
isentropic process, the transfer of heat is adiabatic, and
the process is reversible. Isentropic processes are often
idealized and used in the analysis of thermodynamic
systems, particularly in the field of engineering and
physics.
It is mathematically represented as, ΔS = 0

Other thermodynamic processes involve changes in

other variables like pressure, volume, and temperature,
whereas isentropic processes are adiabatic, reversible,
and characterised by the absence of friction and
turbulence. In real-world applications, the isentropic
process is an approximation or idealization because
total isolation of a system is not possible.
19
 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
ISENTROPIC PROCESS EXAMPLES
• Air Compression in a Bicycle Pump: When air is compressed in a bicycle
pump, assuming minimal heat transfer and friction, the process can be
approximated as isentropic.
•During the compression and expansion of refrigerants in air
conditioning and refrigeration systems, where the process is designed to
minimize heat transfer and frictional losses.
•Expansion and compression of ideal gases: When an ideal gas
undergoes expansion or compression in an isolated system adiabatiaclly,
it can be considered an isentropic process.
Quasistatic Systems
A quasistatic system is one that undergoes changes very slowly, maintaining
equilibrium at each stage of the process. -
-
When process proceeds in such way that the system remains close to an -
-
thermodynamic equilibrium state at all times, it is called a Quasi-static process. -
-
-
-.
• It is possible that the single weight on the piston is replaced by numbers of
many small pieces of weights as shown.

• These weight are removed one by one very slowly from the top of the
piston.

• If piston is moved slowly, the molecule will have sufficient time to

redistribute.

• As a result, the pressure inside the cylinder will always be uniform and will
reduce at the same rate at all locations.

• So every state passed through by the system will be an equilibrium state.

• Such a process passes through all the equilibrium points is called Quasi-
static process.
Key Characteristics:
• Infinitesimally Slow Changes:
Changes within the system occur at an extremely slow rate, allowing the system to be considered in equilibrium at any
given moment.
• Reversibility:
The process is reversible, meaning that the system can return to its initial state by reversing the changes, and the
systemundergoes a series of equilibrium states.
• Well-Defined Path:
The path taken by the system from one equilibrium state to another is well-defined, allowing for a precise description
of thesystem's properties at each point along the path.
• Idealization:
Quasistatic processes are theoretical idealizations used in thermodynamics to simplify calculations and analyses.

Application:
• Quasistatic processes are commonly used in theoretical thermodynamics to model idealized scenarios and make
theoretical predictions about the behavior of systems.
Non-Quasistatic Systems
A non-quasistatic system is one in which changes occur relatively quickly, and the
system may not be in equilibrium during the entire process.
• Let us consider system of gas contained in cylinder shown

• The system initially is in an equilibrium state, and describe by properties P 1,V1

• The upward force exerted by gas on the piston is balanced by weight (W) on the
piston.

• If the weight is removed. there will be an unbalanced forced between the system and
the surroundings.

• Due to gas pressure, the piston will move up to the stops.

• Then system again comes to the equilibrium state which is described by the
properties P2 , V2

• But the intermediate states passed through by the system are non- equilibrium and it
will not be possible to describe the path.

• Thus process 1-2 is non-Quasi-static process.

Key Characteristics
• Rapid Changes:
Changes within the system occur at a comparatively fast rate, and the system may not have time to reach equilibrium at
each stage.
• Irreversibility:
Processes may be irreversible, and the system might not be able to return to its initial state by simply reversing the
changes.
• Complex Path:
The path taken by the system may not be well-defined, and the properties of the system may not be precisely describable
at every stage of the process.

• Application:
Non-quasistatic processes are more representative of real-world scenarios where changes often happen rapidly, and
the system may not follow a perfectly defined path.
DIRECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC
PROCESS
REVERSIBLE PROCESS: A reversible process, in the context of
thermodynamics, refers to a theoretical process that - after it has
occurred, can simply be reversed by a slight alteration or removing the
factor which triggered the process, returning the system and its
surroundings to their original states. There are two significant types of
reversible processes:
• Isentropic: A process occurs without transfer of heat or matter between
a system and its surroundings.
• Isothermal: A process occurs at a constant temperature.
Note that The entropy change (ΔS), of a closed system undergoing a
reversible process is zero.
DIRECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

Factors Influencing Reversible Processes

There are several conditions that must be met for a process to be
reversible. Some of which are:
• Equilibrium: The system must remain in equilibrium during the
process. This means the process must occur extremely slowly (quasi-
statically) to keep the system near equilibrium.
• No Friction: Friction is an irreversible process hence, for a process to
be reversible within a system, there should be no friction.
• Other factors that can affect reversible processes are the interactions
between the system and its surroundings
DIRECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

REVERSIBLE PROCESS EXAMPLES

• Compressing a Gas: Gases, such as air, are often compressed in mechanical
applications. Consider a scenario where a gas is compressed incredibly slowly. If
done slow enough, and considering there's no friction within the system, this process
is deemed as reversible because the system can be returned to its original state by
infinitesimally reducing the pressure. The concept is utilized in designing the most
efficient engines and compressors.
• Rotating Magnetic Fields: In electrical engineering, reversible processes are often
conceptualized in the context of rotating magnetic fields. Suppose an alternator is
used to generate electricity from a rotating magnetic field. If the process occurs
slowly enough, the field can reverse its direction, running back the alternator, and
returning the system to its original state. This process can theoretically be reversed,
depicting a reversible process.
DIRECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS: In thermodynamics, an irreversible process is defined as a

process that cannot be reversed, which cannot return both the system and the surroundings to
their original conditions.
FACTORS INFLUENCING REVERSIBLE PROCESS: During the irreversible
process, the entropy of the system increases. Many factors make a process irreversible:
• Presence of friction and heat losses. In real thermodynamic systems or real heat
processes, we cannot exclude the presence of mechanical friction or heat losses.
• Heat exchange: Reversible heat transfer occurs differentially, meaning infinitesimally
small temperature differences driving heat transfer. Sudden or large temperature differences
lead to irreversibility.
• Mixing of two different substances
• These factors are present in real, irreversible processes and prevent these processes from
being reversible.
DIRECTION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

Examples of irreversible process

• Frictional Heating: When you rub your hands together, the friction
between them generates heat. This process is irreversible because the
mechanical energy used to rub your hands is converted into thermal
energy, which cannot be completely converted back into mechanical
energy.
• Mixing of Two Gases: When two gases with different compositions and
temperatures are mixed, they reach a state of equilibrium where their
molecules are uniformly distributed. This process is irreversible because
the mixing increases the overall entropy of the system.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REVERSIBLE
AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
Reversible process
1. It is a slow process going through a series of
smaller stages maintaining equilibrium
between the system and surrounding
2. A reversible process can be made to proceed in
forward or backward direction
3. Work done in a reversible process is greater
than the corresponding work done in
irreversible process
Irreversible Process
In this process the system attains final state from the
initial state with a measurable speed during the
transformation, there is no equilibrium maintained
between the system and surroundings.
Irreversible process can take place in one direction
only.
Work done in an irreversible process is always lower
than the same kind of work done in a reversible
process
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

Thermodynamic properties are characteristic features of a system, which are

capable of specifying the state of a system. Thermodynamic properties include:
● Heat, Q
● Work, W
● Internal Energy U
● Temperature T
● Entropy S

32
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
● Heat, Q: HEAT (ΔQ) is the thermal energy that flows from one body or system
to another, which is in contact with it, because of their temperature difference.
Heat always flows from hot to cold. For two objects in contact to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other (i.e., for no net heat transfer from one to the other),
their temperatures must be the same. If each of two objects is in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, then the two are in thermal equilibrium with each
other. (This fact is often referred to as the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.)
● Work, W: (ΔW) is positive if the system thereby loses energy to its surroundings.
When the surroundings do work on the system so as to give it energy. ΔW is a
negative quantity. In a small expansion ΔV, a fluid at constant pressure P does work
given by ΔW = PΔV

33
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

● Internal Energy, U: (U) of a system is the total energy content of the

system. It is the sum of all forms of energy possessed by the atoms and
molecules of the system.

● Entropy, S: This is the measure

of disorderliness or randomness
of a system. It describes how
much energy is not available to
do work.

34
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

● Temperature, T: Thermodynamic temperature, by contrast, is an

absolute measure of the average total internal energy of an object or
objects—namely its kinetic energy (energy of motion) plus contributions
from other factors. This thermodynamic property only describes a
macroscopic state. It is expressed in number of kelvins above absolute
zero, the theoretical point at which nothing can get colder.
Zeroth’s Law of Thermodynamics: If body A is in thermal equilibrium
as body T (a thermoscope) and body B is in thermal equilibrium with
body T, then bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
We can then say that both bodies have the same temperature. 35
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

This is a statement of the law of conservation of energy. It states that if an

amount of heat ΔQ flows into a system, then this energy must appear as
increased internal energy ΔU for the system and/or work ΔW done by the
system on its surroundings. As an equation, the First Law is

∆𝑄 =∆𝑈+∆𝑊

where ΔU= change in internal energy, Q= heat added and W= work done by
the system.

36
Formulas for calculations
● W=PΔV, ΔU=ΔT,
● For an isothermal process, ΔQ = ΔW
● For an ideal gas changing isothermally, = 2.30
● For an adiabatic process, ΔU = – W
● For an ideal gas changing adiabatically, , and

Unit conversion
1atm = 101325Pa = 101.325KPa = 1.01Pa
1cal = 4.184J,

NOTE; Pa is same as N/
CALCULATIONS ON THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 1
• For each of the following adiabatic processes, find the change in
internal energy. (a) A gas does 5J of work while expanding
adiabatically. (b) During an adiabatic compression, 80J of work is
done on a gas.
During an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred to or from the
system.
(a)
(b)
CALCULATIONS ON THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 2
• In a certain process, 8.00 kcal of heat is furnished to the system while the system
does 6.00kJ of work. By how much does the internal enegy of the system change
during the process?
Solution
we have,
= (8000 cal)(4.184 J/cal) = 33.5kJ
= 6.00kJ
Therefore from the first law ,
= 33.5kJ 6.00kJ = 27.5 kJ
CALCULATIONS ON THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 3
• The Specific heat of water is 4184 J/kg.k. By how many Joules does the internal
energy of 50g of water change as it is heated from 21 to 37?
Solution
The heat added to heat the water is
(4184 J/kg.k)(0.050kg)(16) = 3.4 x J
If we ignore the slight expansion of the water, no work was done on the
surroundings and so ∆𝑊= 0. Then, from the first law, ∆𝑄 =∆𝑈+∆𝑊, tells us that
∆𝑈=∆𝑄 = 3.4kJ
CALCULATIONS ON THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 4
● How much work is done by an ideal gas in expanding isothermally from an initial
volume of 3.00 litres at 20.0 atm to a final volume of 24.0 liters
Solution
For an isothermal expansion by an ideal gas,
= 2.30
= (20.0 x 1.01 x N/)(3.00 x ) = 12.6kJ

42
 CALCULATIONS ON THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 5
The specific heat of air at constant volume is 0.175 cal/g°C. (a) By how much does
the internal energy of 5.0 g of air change as it is heated from 20°C to 400 °C? (b)
Suppose that 5.0 g of air is adiabatically compressed so as to rise its temperature from
20°C to 400°C. How much work ( in kcal) must be done on the air to compress it?
SOLUTION
(a)To calculate the internal energy;

= 0.005Kg (0.175 cal/g°C J/kg.K (400 – 20)°C

= 1392.11J
(b)Adiabatically; therefore 0
Therefore;
∆𝑈=∆W

From (a); = 1392.11J

= 1392.11J = 0.33kcal
CALCULATIONS ON THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 6
• Twenty cubic centimeters of monoatomic gas at 12 and 100 kPa is suddenly (and
adiabatically) compressed to 0.50. What are its new pressure and temperature? for
a monoatomic gas.
For an adiabatic change involving an ideal gas, where for a monoatomic
gas. Hence,
= (1.00 x N/) = 4.74 x
To find the final temperature, we could use . Instead, let us use
Or
= (285K)(11.8) = 3.4 X K
As a check,

7000 = 7000
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The second law of thermodynamics states that:
“the total entropy of a system either increases or remains constant in any
spontaneous process; it never decreases.”
It is mathematically expressed as ΔS = Q/T
where ΔS= change in entropy, Q= heat and T= temperature of the system.
An important implication of this law is that heat transfers energy spontaneously
from higher- to lower temperature objects, but never spontaneously in the
reverse direction. This is because entropy increases for heat transfer of energy
from hot to cold. The decrease in entropy of the hot (larger T) object is therefore
less than the increase in entropy of the cold (smaller T) object, producing an 47
overall increase in entropy for the system.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The ice in this drink is slowly melting.
Eventually, the components of the
liquid will reach thermal equilibrium,
as predicted by the second law of
thermodynamics—that is, after heat
transfers energy from the warmer
liquid to the colder ice.
(Jon Sullivan, PDPhoto.org)

48
CALCULATIONS ON THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 1
Twenty gram of ice at precisely at 0 melts to water with no change in temperature. By how
much does the entropy of the 20g mass change in this process? ( = 3.34 x )
Solution
By slowly adding heat to the ice, we can melt it in a reversible way. The heat
needed is
(0.02)(3.34 x ) = 6680 J
So = 24.4 J/K
Notice that melting increases the entropy (and disorder).
50
CALCULATIONS ON THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 2
As shown in the figure below, an ideal gas is confined to a cylinder by a piston. The piston is pushed
down slowly so that the gas temperature remains at 20.0°C. During the compression, 730 J of work
is done on the gas. Find the entropy change of the gas.
The first law tells us that,
∆𝑄 =∆𝑈+∆𝑊

Because the process was isothermal, the internal energy of the ideal gas did not change. Therefore
∆𝑈=0 and

∆𝑄 =∆𝑊= 730J
(Because the gas was compressed, the gas did negative work, hence the
minus sign).Now we can write,
J/K
Notice that the entropy change is negative. The disorder of the gas
decreased as it was pushed into a smaller volume.
 HEAT ENGINE
Heat engines are devices that convert thermal energy into mechanical work. They
operate based on the principles of thermodynamics, specifically the conversion of heat
to work.
TYPES OF HEAT ENGINE
Diagram of an internal combustion engine
Internal Combustion Engines: (ICE)
Utilize the combustion of fuel within the engine.
They are commonly found in automobiles,
motorcycles, and small power equipment.
Examples include gasoline and diesel engines.
TYPES OF HEAT ENGINE
• External Combustion Engines
(Stirling Engines): It operates on
a closed cycle with a working
fluid, typically a gas. Heat is
applied externally, and the fluid
undergoes cycles of compression
and expansion. It is also known for
high efficiency and low emissions,
but less common than internal
combustion engines.
TYPES OF HEAT ENGINE
• Steam Engines: Use the expansion of
steam to generate mechanical work.
They are historically significant and
played a key role in the Industrial
Revolution. Modern applications
include power plants and certain
industrial processes.
 APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS IN MEDICINE

• Medical Imaging (MRI) :The radiofrequency used during the scan could lead to heating of the
body, it uses magnet and radiowaves to produce images of the organs, bones, muscles and blood vessels
for better diagonistics.
1, THERMOMETERS:
i) CLINICAL THERMOMETERS;
ii) LABORATORY THERMOMETERS
• Heat Therapy
• Use of thermometers
APPLICATION IN PHARMACEUTICALS
• Experiment monitoring
• Drug development
• Chemical reaction
• Material testing
• Maintenance of sterile work environment
Application in Thermotherapy
• Therapeutic treatment using heat to damaged joints, muscles and tissues,
• vasodilation,
• Decreased pain, Stiffness of joints
• Cardiovascular benefits
• Increases blood flow and accelerates healing
Application in Infared radiation
• Direct contact to blood capilliaries and neuron terminals
• Promotes blood circulation, reduces muscle tension
• Treatment of autoimmune diseases or wound healing disorders.
In summary, thermodynamics is integrated into various fields of medicine,
from diagnostics and treatment to medical research and the development of
pharmaceuticals. Its principles are foundational in ensuring the effectiveness,
safety, and efficiency of healthcare technologies and interventions.
Thank you