Vet Priventive Med Parts For Mid Exam

Bule Hora University, College of Agricultural
Science, School OF Veterinary Medicine
COURSE: Veterinary Preventive Medicine

COURSE CODE: Vetm5182
Cr Hrs=3
By dr. Zelalem A.(DVM, Mvsc, in Veterinary Epidemiology, Assistance Professor)
BHU, Ethiopia
2024 G .c
By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 1

CHAPTER ONE
HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS

AGAINST INFECTION

1.INTRODUCTION
One of the most important functions of domestic farm
animals is the conversion of human-inedible forage, by
products, and crop residues into high quality human food
(meat, milk, and egg).
The most important needs of human being is a

dependable food supply, milk, meat, egg, etc. which can
be obtained from animals (farm animals).
1.INTRODUCTION…con’d
Introduction of food agriculture is increasing and the increase
have implication for veterinary services to farm animals with
regard to the increase emphasized:
The process of technical activities improves the welfare of

consumers by making livestock product available at low
cost/price.
Farming becomes profitable only for farmers who adopt new

large economics scale (increasing herd size/farm) and
techniques. By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 4
Modern livestock producers attain production by pro-active
health and production management.
Herd health is a planned animal health and production
program
Animal health schemes therefore, should consider production
systems present in an area, ecology (environment), and
economic importance of animal production.
Thus, planned animal health and production management
program = herd health = production oriented medicine =
preventive medicine
The traditional role of the veterinarian has been to attend individual
sick animals when requested to do so by the owner (“Fire brigade
treatment” ).
This approach was useful when most diseases, such as the classical
epidemic infectious diseases, had a predominantly single cause and
responded to a simple course of treatment.
However, an appreciation during the 1960s of the multifactorial nature

of many diseases, which coincided with intensification of animal
industries in the developed countries, with a relative decrease in the
value of individual animals, resulted in a change in attitude towards the
management of diseases in livestock units or at herd level
First, it became clear that diseases needed to be controlled by
simultaneously manipulating all determinants: those associated
with agent, host and environment.
The veterinarian’s objective should be to prevent, rather than to
treat, disease.
Secondly, it became necessary to consider disease in terms of

its contribution to reduced performance (and therefore
profitability) of a herd.

The first change stimulated the development of
preventive medicine programmes in the early 1960s.
 The second change resulted in the evolution of

comprehensive herd health and productivity schemes,
encompassing preventive medicine and the assessment of
productivity.

Preventive Veterinary medicine is health and production
oriented medicine to the control and prevention of health and
production problems and to attain efficient performance.
It is a combination of well designed veterinary activities and good

management practices to achieve optimum health and
production. By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 9
Veterinary Preventive Medicine encompasses the organized efforts of
veterinary, human, and environmental medicine to advance health and prevent
disease in both animal and human populations.
It is a multidisciplinary approach in concepts, methods, and strategies applied in

contemporary and future efforts to detect, mitigate, and eradicate animal and
human diseases (zoonoses).
Preventive medicine refers to measures taken to prevent diseases rather than

curing or treating their symptoms.

The main components in every type of health and productivity schemes ( dairy,
beef, shoats and pigs) are:-
1. The recording of farm profile (structure of herd, stocking density,
nutrition and management... etc.
2. Monitoring all aspects of production
3. Identification of all major problems
4. Routine prophylaxis against the major disease risks
5. Definition of production targets ( means, calving intervals ..etc)
6. Advice on husbandry and management to achieve the targets
7. Detection of shortfalls by eliminating defects associated with agent,
host and environment revising production targets.
8. Regular visits to farms ( list of follow up to be drown)
- Vaccination By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 11
2. HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST INFECTION
2.1. Generalities
Animals combat potential pathogens= virus, bacteria, fungus because they live
in microbial environment.
The formation of the environment may increase or decrease the pressure of these
factors to the organisms.
Apart from the agent and environmental factors the capacity of the host defense
is responsible for the development of disease signs.
For its defense against pathogen, the host posses closely interrelated defense
mechanisms. This closely interrelated defense mechanisms vary according to
how well/ how high the organism is developed or organized this is know as a
HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST INFECTION …con’d
Defense system is a remarkably versatile system that

protect organisms from invading pathogenic M.O and
cancer cells.
The system is a collection of mechanisms that protect

organisms against diseases (infections) by identifying and
killing pathogens and tumor cells.
HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST INFECTION …con’d
The system detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses

to parasitic worms.
Protects the organism with layered defenses of increasing

specificity.
 If a pathogen breaches physical barriers, innate immune

system provides an immediate but non-specific response.
Cont.….
Moreover, if a pathogen successfully evades the innate
response, vertebrates possess a third layer of protection
(adaptive immune system) which is activated by the innate
immune system.
However, detection may become complicated when pathogens

adapt and evolve new ways to successfully invade the host
organism.

Cont….
For this challenge, several mechanisms evolved that recognize and neutralize
pathogens.
The defense system of vertebrates consists of many types of molecules

(humoral, proteins), cells, organs, and tissues, which interact in an elaborate
and dynamic network.
Thus, more complex immune mechanism of vertebrates adapts over time to

recognize a particular pathogen more efficiently.
Again, the adaptation process creates immunological memories and allows even
more effective protection during future encounters with that particular pathogen.
This process of adaptation (acquired immunity)
By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) is the basis of vaccination.
16
Cont…
Indeed, the body employs multiple Layers of defense . As a
result,

Cont…
Both innate and adaptive immunity depends on the ability of the
immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules.
Neither innate nor adaptive immune systems work in isolation, but
needs interaction between them.
Generally, the amount and activity of cellular and humoral components
of both innate and adaptive (acquired) immunity varies between species
and breeds of animals.
This depends on the genetic constitution and/or natural resistance.
Cont….
This has implications for the type of animal production in the
tropics where autochthonous breeds of animals do have much
higher level of natural resistance than exotic breeds.
This resistance is not only to infectious diseases but also to

non-infectious (poisoning) diseases in the tropical environment.

2.2.. Host Defense Mechanisms-Classifications
Host defense mechanism is divided in to resistance and immunity.
2.2.1.Resistance:
Resistance: totality of defense against invading pathogens non-specifically
before specific immune response developed.
is an in-born(congenital and hereditary) property of the organism(animal)
used for defending itself against infections, allergies and neoplastic
antigens.
* It helps to suppress clinical manifestations or mitigate M.Os, eventually
stimulate and enhance the development of specific (adaptive) defense.
Cont…
Resistance is the sum of independent but correlated reactions against invading pathogens.
Non-specific (innate, natural) resistance
 First line of defense,
 Lines of natural defense in innate immunity can be grouped in to four:

Anatomic (physical) barriers
 Physiological barriers
 Phagocytic barriers
 Inflammatory barriers
 Genetically (hereditary trait) and constitutionally determined

 Found in nearly all forms of life (plants and animals)
Cont.….
 Response is non-specific
 Thus, defends non-specifically against infectious, toxic, allergic
and neoplasm with many clearly definable mechanism.
 There is no immunological memories
 An organisms constitution, species and breed specific. Thus,
especially important for animal production in the tropics.
 Does not confer long-lasting immunity against pathogens.
Cont.…
Composed of variety of molecules and cells distributed
throughout the body including humoral and cellular components.
 Exposure leads to effective and immediate maximal response.
But if breached, it assumes catalytic functions in setting the specific

immune system to be called.

Cont….
Resistance is the same within breed, but can be affected by
feed and stress
It can be maintained and optimized by high level feed but can
not be elevated.
It is a trait that is effective against large amount of disease and

disease agents equally, so resistance is not specific to certain
against.
Resistance could be absolute or relative
Resistance
Relative
Absolute
It is complete insusceptibility of a host

organism to specific pathogen.
It is composed of passive and
Resistance is so complete and no need to active resistance factors
mount specific immune response to be
detected serologically.
It is usually species specific. E.g. Equines: Genetically determined animals
absolute resistance to FMD virus (No FMD
–serum). constitution but the qualities of
traits may vary. Eg. breed.
Relative resistance
Passive relative resistance
are basically components of constitution of an animal (genetic traits),
however, environmental factors may secondarily influence the qualities
of genetic traits. Eg. Ecological and production
All anatomical and physiological properties are constitutional and

may contribute to resistance complex and adaptation to ecological
factors
Eg. Skin, mucous membrane, hair and ciliated epithelium, coughing,

sneezing, mucosal and ruminal microbial flora, secretions and
excretions (saliva, tear, milk, semen, nasal, vaginal, urine, etc.) .
Passive relative resistance…CON’D
Relevant for the resistance and adaptation to the tropical climate
 Metabolism-in relation to heat tolerance, basal metabolism, capacity for
water retention, and digestion of crude fiber.
 Musculoskeleton system- the ability of the animal to walk long
distance.
 Decrease production- relatively low level of production
Some conditional factors may influence this genetically determinant
quality of the animal (constitution). Variation in passive resistance
between breeds of the same species under comparable environment.
Eg. Sanga breeds-highly susceptible to Tryps but relatively resistance to
CBPP.
N’dama breeds- highly susceptible to CBPP but relatively resistance to
Cont…
Active relative resistance
is so complex in mechanism and composed of cellular and humoral
factors (phagocytic and inflammatory barriers).
Cellular resistance factors:
E.G. macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, mast cells,natural

killer cells, etc.
The function of the macrophages is to phagositize the invading
microorganisms. Once the membrane is removed the phagosome is
fused to lysosome(humoral) to form phagolysosome.
Cellular resistance factors…con’d
Macrophages not only act as sentinel cells and sense the presence of invading
micro-organisms, but' they can also kill invading organisms and play an essential
role in triggering acquired immunity,
Their name is derived from the fact that they are “large-eating" cells (Creek micro,
phage),
o Some organisms have a mechanism to overcome the effect of macrophages by
inhibiting the fusion to lysozyme. Eg. Brucella-inhibit the fusion of macrophage
with lysosome, so survives within macrophages. M. avium- escapes from fused
Phagolysosome to the unfused one.
Neutrophils- activity increases by Magnesium makes the animal to absorb more

water available to the circulation.BySo colostrum enhance passive immunity and29 active
Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff)
Cont…
Humoral resistance factors:
These are heterogeneous mixtures of substances which mostly act in a
bacteriocidal manner and also indirectly enhance the immune system.
E.G. complement, lysozyme, interferon, opsonin, properdin, etc.
They are all a product of metabolism, their amount genetically

determined.

Humoral resistance factors…con’d
Lysozyme
Normally produced by phagocytes and macrophages and attacks the
inner layer of the bacterial cell wall, which leads to the rupture of the
cell membrane, which maintains integrity of the bacteria. Gram
negative bacteria have additional membrane inner layer of cell wall
which contains peptidoglycan(polysaccharide) which acted up on by
lysozyme.
The most significant effect on lysozyme actively comes from stress,

i.e. produced by infection, especially animals infected with Brucellosis
and Trypanosomes have less lysozyme activity
Cont…
Outer cell wall of gram negative bacteria do have lipopolysaccharides which
hinders the action of beta lysine of lysozyme.
However, the interaction of lysozyme with the antigen-antibody-complement
system can act to lyze gram negative bacteria.
The enzyme lysozyme destroys bacterial peptidoglycans. Lysozyme is found
in all body fluids except cerebrospinal fluid, sweat, and urine.
Complement system
consists of a number of small proteins found in the blood, generally synthesized
by the liver, and normally circulating as inactive precursors (pro-proteins).
 is a complex system of plasma proteins together with immunoglobulin and
cellular resistance factor forms a defense mechanism against invading organisms.
32
Complement system…con’d
Mostly plasma proteins are found in inactive form in body
fluids(serum) they are mostly activated by two ways of mechanisms:
1. Classical way of complement activation: involve of Ag-Ab
complex formation, so in that way complement is activated.
2.The alternative path way- complement are activated when

plasma proteins come across the bacterial cell wall(only through
the presence of certain Ag-). Here, no need of Ab-Ag complex.
This recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response
When stimulated by one of several triggers, proteases in the system
cleave specific proteins to release cytokines and initiate an amplifying
cascade of further cleavages.
Complement system…con’d
The end-result of this activation cascade is massive amplification
of the response and activation of the cell-killing “membrane
attack complex”.
It is named for its ability to complement the killing of pathogens

by antibodies and phagocytic cells
Contains over 20 different serum proteins.
Complement is the major humoral component of the innate

immune response By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 34
Cont…
Interferon system (IFNs):
are proteins with unspecific antiviral action means they are not directed
against specific virus but their action is more effective against the
homologues viruses.
belong to the large class of glycoproteins known as cytokines

(intracellular communication molecules).
One of a cytokine with anti-viral effect.

 Produced by cells non-selectively against viral infections.
Interferon system (IFNs)…con’d
Shut-down viral protein synthesis in host cells
Blocks host cell receptors, preventing attachment of viral

peplomers
Interferon produced against one virus protects infection with

other viruses
Cont…
2.2.2.Immunity:
Is all about protection
Is a specialized form host against most infectious agent.
Historically, Immunity meant protection from disease (infectious
diseases)
Cells and molecules responsible for immunity constitute the immune
system.
Their collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign

agents is called the immune response.
2.2.2.Immunity....con’d
Acquired /Adaptive, Specific/ Immunity : is evolved in early
vertebrates and found only in jawed vertebrates
Allows for stronger immune response and immunological
memories
Antigen or pathogen specific
Lag time between exposure and maximal response
Both humoral and cellular components involved

Cont.…
Exposure leads to immunological memories
The innate immune system recognizes certain key molecules (the PAMP’s) that are
characteristic of major groups of pathogens. The acquired immune system,
however, can recognize and respond to a vast ,array of foreign molecular structures.
These molecular structures are called antigens.
The compound that evokes the response is referred to either as antigen or as
immunogen.
An immunogen is any agent capable of inducing an immune response. In

contrast, an antigen is any agent capable of binding specifically to components of
the immune response, such as lymphocytes and antibodies.
Cont…
all immunogens are antigens, but not all antigens need be
immunogens.
By themselves, these compounds are incapable of inducing an immune

response, but they are coupled with much larger entities, such as
proteins, the resultant conjugate induces an immune response that is
directed against various part of the conjugate, including the low
molecular-weight compound (hapten).

Molecules Vary in their ability to act as antigens (their antigenicity) and
stimulate an immune response.

Cont….
2.3. Immunological Memories
When activated B-cells and T-cells begin to replicate, some of their off-
springs will become long-lived memory cells.
Throughout the life time, these memory cells will remember each
specific pathogen encountered and mount stronger immune response if
the pathogen detected again.

Cont…
This process of acquired immunity with immunological memories are the
basis of vaccination/immuno-prophylaxis/.
Immunological memory could either be in the form of passive short-term
(few days to several months) or active long-term.
A) Passive short-term memory: several layers of passive protections are

provided by mother to new born until the new born starts to synthesize its
own antibodies.
E.g. Trans-placental transfer of IgG in human during pregnancy, via

Cont…
In autochthonous tropical breeds of cattle, antibodies
acquired passively through colostrum may persist for several
months (5-6) unlike exotic breeds where passive colostral
immunity lasts only for few weeks.
B) Active long-term memory: acquired following natural

infection by activation of B-cells and T-cells. It can also be
generated artificially through vaccination (immunization).

2.4. Forms of immunity
Acquired immunity
active immunity passive immunity
Naturally Artificial Naturally Artificial

by infection e.g .vaccination e.g. Hyper -
colostral Abs imune sera (immune globulines )

Cont…..
Immunity can also be
sterile unsterile (Preimmunity)

complete protection as a whole Not complete because the
e.g. bacteria, virus pathogenic components
are still in the environment
of host
- protozoal, ricketessials
and parasitic
* is an important phenomena
of tropical breeds.
Cont…
3. Immuno-chemo-prophylaxis
Prophylaxis: is preventive (protective) measure
Immuno-chemo-prophylaxis is preventive measures either with

immunologically derived products or antibiotics (chemicals).
3.1.Immuno-prophylaxis
There arc two basic methods by which an animal may be made
immune to an infectious disease: passive and active
immunization.
Cont….
3.1.1. Passive immunization
Passive immunization produces temporary immunity by
transferring antibodies from a resistant to a susceptible animal.
e.g. TAT, Rabies, botulism
These passively transferred antibodies give immediate protection,
but since they are gradually catabolized, this protection wanes
and the recipient eventually becomes susceptible to reinfection.
requires that antibodies are produced in donor animal by active

immunization and that these antibodies be given to susceptible
animal. By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 48
Cont….
3.1.2. Active immunization
this could be through natural infection or artificially by
vaccination whereby the organism actively able to produce
humoral and/or cellular immune response by itself.
Re-immunization or exposure to infection in the same animal
will result in a secondary immune response and greatly
enhanced immunity.
Active immunization has several advantages compared with
passive immunization. These include the prolonged period of
protection and the recall and boosting of this protective
response by repeated injections of antigen or by exposure to
infection. By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 49
Cont…
Vaccination
An ideal vaccine for active immunization should therefore
give prolonged strong immunity.
It is only active immunity (natural infection or vaccination) that

stimulate the immune system with immunological memories.
Vaccination is deliberate induction of immune system and is

successful as it exploits the natural specificity of immune system as
well as its inducibility.
Cont….
The ideal vaccine should be:-
 cheap, stable, and adaptable to mass vaccination;
 ideally it should stimulate an immune response distinguishable
from that due to natural infection so that immunization and
eradication may proceed simultaneously.
In addition to the requirements listed above, effective vaccines must
have other critical properties;
First, antigen must be delivered efficiently so that antigen-
presenting cells can process antigen and release appropriate
cytokines.
Second, both T and B cells must be stimulated so that they
generate large numbers or memory cells.
Cont…
 Third, helper and effector T cells must he generated to several

epitopes in the vaccine so that individual
Finally, the antigen must be able to stimulate memory cells in

such a way that protection will last as long as possible.

Cont…
 For active immunization (vaccination), antigens used in different vaccines

could be:
Whole pathogenic organism (live attenuated or inactivated (killed)
Purified microbial macromolecules (Metabolic products or parts
of the pathogen)
Recombinant microbial antigen (recombinant surface antigen
vaccines, recombinant vector or DNA vaccines).
Synthetic antigens, etc.
Cont….
Live attenuated and Inactivated (killed) vaccines
Live attenuated vaccines
Select avirulent strain, grow in adverse culture conditions, or prolonged passage
to different hosts
Eg1. M. bovis (BCG vaccine) grow in bile salt for
many years (about 13 years)
Eg2. Measles vaccine – green monkey kidney
Eg3. Polio vaccine – guinea pig kidney cells
One booster dose of vaccine is enough
Cont…
Both humoral and cell mediated immune response can be
induced
Unstable (less stable) than killed one
Adjuvants Unnecessary
Unfortunately, two of the prerequisites of an ideal vaccine-high
antigencity and absence of adverse side effects are often
incompatible. Modified live vaccines infect host cells ,and
undergo viral replication.
Killed organisms, in contrast, act as exogenous antigens. They
commonly stimulate responses dominated by CD4+ Th2 cells.
Cont…
Inactivated (killed) vaccine
By chemicals or irradiation with gamma rays but heating may denature proteins
and prevent immunogenicity.
Formalin fixing is the best chemical inactivation with intact epitope (antigenic
structure).
Requires repeat booster dose
Such vaccines mostly contain adjuvants
 More stable and no need for refrigeration
 Mostly induce humoral immune response
 No possibility of reversion
Cont….
Generally, most inactivated viral vaccines are based on whole
viruses, while many killed bacterial vaccines are based on
acellular components (purified macromolecules, surface
antigens, including toxins).

Chapter three:
Transboundary, Emerging and
Re-emerging Animal Diseases

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
♠ Describe what is meant by TAD, EID and Re-EID?
♠ Know factors for emergence and re-emergence of infectious

diseases
INTRODUCTION
What is TADs?
 TADs are those diseases that are of significant economic,

trade and/or food security importance for a considerable
number of countries; which can easily spread to other
countries and reach epidemic proportions; and where
control/management, including exclusion, requires
cooperation between several countries.
 E.g. FMD, RP, CBPP, RVF, PPR, ASF, NCD and HPAI
Cont…
Emerging Infectious Diseases
❑ Emerging infectious disease is caused by a newly discovered
infectious agent or by a newly identified variant of a known pathogen,
which has emerged and whose incidence in humans or animals has
increased during the last two decades and is threatening to increase in the
near future.
E.g. COVID19, HIV/AIDS, SARS and H5N1 influenza

Re-emerging infectious diseases
❑ Are those that have been around for decades or
centuries, but have come back in a different form or a different
location, or expands its host range.
❑ A re-emerging infectious disease is a one which was previously
controlled but once again has risen to be a significant health problem.
E.g. West Nile virus, Ebola, Monkey pox and Dengue
Deliberately emerging diseases are those that are intentionally
introduced.
These are agents of bioterror, the most recent and important example of
which is anthrax. 62
GLOBAL EXAMPLES OF EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES

GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF EID EVENTS FROM 1940-2004 75% of the EID are zoonotic
51:
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EBOLA IN AFRICA: THE END OF A TRAGEDY

Number of cases of COVID 19 reported in the world, March
23/2021

Factors for the emergence and re-emergence of
infectious diseases:
➢ Ecological changes (Dams, Agriculture, Irrigations..)
➢ Human demographics behavior (Population growth and

migration, sexual behavior, civil conflict….)
➢ International travel commerce (Air travel, World wide

movement of goods and people..)

Cont…
Technology and industry (Globalization of food
supplies, wide spread use of antibiotics..)
Microbial adaptation and change (Microbial evolution..)
Breakdown in public health measures (Reduction in

prevention programs…)

Chapter Four:
Animal disease complex in the
tropics – Vector-Borne diseases

Introduction
Description
Vector-born diseases are only those infections which require a vector for their
transmission.
Vector is an invertebrate animal that actively transmits an infectious agent
between infected and susceptible vertebrates.
Disease vectors in domestic animals in the tropics are mainly arthropods.
Arthropod vectors of vector born diseases have double importance:
As external parasite
As vectors of infectious diseases(protozoal, reckettesial and viral).
Vector transmit in two ways :
 Mechanical: without undergoing a stage of development.
 Biological (cyclical): undergoing a stage of devlopment.
70
Cont…
The arthropod vectors that commonly involved in animal disease transmission
include:
 the family ixodidae(ticks)
 The order diptera (two winged flies)
 Tabanidae(horse flies)
 Glossinidae (tsetseflies)
 Muscidae (house and stable flies)
 Hyppoboscidae (louse flies)
 The suborder Nematocera (midges and gnats)
o Culicidae (only females feed on blood)
 Aedes - surra, anaplasmosis and RVF
 Anopheles –Anaphlsmosis
 Culiseta – Anaphlsmosis
 Eretmapodites –RVF
o Ceratopogonidae (biting midges)
-AHS and BT
Only females suck the blood 71
72
1.RIFT VALLEY FEVER(RVF)
Importance
❖ A zoonotic, an emerging, mosquito–borne viral disease important in domestic ruminants
❖ Characterized by high mortality rates in young animals and abortions in pregnant ruminants
❖ Animal movement and trade restrictions during epidemics
RVF is an arthropod born, acute , febrile viral disease of sheep, cattle and goats.
It is highly contagious to human and produces flu-like symptoms.
It may also cause severe disease complications (encephalitis and hemorrhagic fever) in humans.
Etiology
Family :Bunyaviridae(RNA vius)
genus :Phlebovirus
Charecteristic
 no significant antigenic variation between RVF isolates (antigenically similar)
 Very stable in serum at < -60 degree Celsius
 In aerosol at 23 degree Celsius
73
RVF: EPIDEMIOLOGY
Susceptible species
➢ Sheep, goats, cattle, goats and camels are the domestic
animal species most affected by RVFV
➢ Humans are also highly susceptible to RVFV infection
➢ There is also considerable difference in susceptibility
amongst different breeds of animal hosts
➢ The indigenous domestic ruminants in tropical and
subtropical zones of Africa are believed to be fairly
resistant to RVF
RVF: EPIDEMIOLOGY…..
Transmission
❖ Transmitted to animals via bites from different species
of infected mosquito during inter-epizootic periods
❖ Aedes and Culex mosquitoes are considered as the

most important maintenance host for RVFV
❖ Trans-ovarian transmission in the vector

Infected eggs lie dormant for years until flooding occurs
(In dried mud)
❖ Outbreaks occur irregularly at 5 to 15 year intervals or
longer in drier areas
❖ Epizootic outbreaks linked with unusual rains or warm

seasons favoring the hatching of infected Aedes eggs that
are then able to initiate the virus circulation

Most human infections are occurred:

❖ Direct or indirect contact with body fluids such as blood, fetal membrane of
infected animals
❖ Through aerosol during the handling of infected animal tissues
❖ Fresh and raw meat may be a source of infection

In east Africa, RVF outbreaks are known to be closely associated with heavy
rainfall events (Dam construction).
Modification in the ecological and/or environmental conditions appeared to be

responsible for the emergence of the virus
Geographical distribution
❖ RVF is found in most of African & endemic in southeastern
Africa
❖ First reported in 1931 in sheep in the Rift Valley of Kenya
❖ Since then, outbreaks occurred in 1977 in Egypt (major
epidemic)
▪ In 1997-98 in Kenya, Somalia and Tanzania
▪ In 2000 RVF cases confirmed in Saudi Arabia and Yemen
▪ In 2007 in Kenya, Tanzania and Somalia

RVF DISTRIBUTION, OUTBREAK AND SPREAD

❑ InEthiopia cases of disease in livestock have never been officially reported
and detected
❑ Ethiopia will always be vulnerable to clinical RVF during the epizootic

periods of the disease in the Horn of Africa region:
➢ The geographical proximity of the country to RVF endemic countries such

as Kenya, Sudan and Somali.
➢ The nature of livestock movement across the international boarders
➢ The ease with which infected mosquitoes can be moved longer distances by
the help of wind By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 81
RVF AFFECTED AREAS AND BAN COUNTRIES

RVF: CLINICAL SIGNS
❑Clinical manifestation vary depending on age
❑ Very young lambs, calves and kids are highly
susceptible to infection with RVFV
❖ The mortality rate is 90 – 100% in lambs and kids, and 10 –
70% in calves
❑ In young: the first sign may be sudden rise of body
temperature (41-42 ºC), followed by collapse and death within 36
hrs.
❑ In adult: high temperature, salivation, anorexia, general
weakness, rapid decrease in lactation and abortion.
RVF: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
❑Animal vaccination
❖ Live-attenuated (smith burn vaccine)
✓ Produce better immunity- 3 yrs
✓ Abortions & birth defects in pregnant animals
❖ Inactivated vaccines (virulent field origin strain)
✓ Safe & effective
✓Two doses (short term immunity)

Cont..
Vector controls (larvicidal treatment of breeding habitat,
insect repellent on animals and mosquito netting).
❑ Movement of stock to higher altitudes
❑ Keeping of young stock in insect-proof stables

RVF CONTINGENCY AND PREPAREDNESS
PLAN FOR ETHIOPIA
Early warning planning
❖ Aims to rapidly detect the existence of RVF viral activity in an
area
❖ By monitoring climatic data, active disease search, serological

survey, vector survey and public awareness programs

early reaction planning
❖ Aims to minimize the socio-economic and public health
impacts of the disease
❖ The first thing is define the area(s) that are likely to
become infected (flood areas, vector distribution)
❖ Quarantine and movement control
❖ Disease prevention and control activities
▪ Notify local administrators, farmers and other
stakeholders about the situation
RVF CONTINGENCY ANDPREPAREDNESS…..
❖ Culling of infected animals

❖ Treatment of products and by-products
▪ Milk
from the infected zone must be pasteurized before
consumption
❖ Disposal of carcass and infected materials
❖ Decontamination
▪ RVFV is susceptible to acid pH a
❖ Vaccination
❖ Vector control
1.2. RABIES
❑ The disease
❖ Rabies is an acute viral encephalomyelitis that
principally affects carnivores and bats, although it can
affect any mammal.
❖ It is almost invariably fatal once clinical signs appeared.
It founds through out the world, but few countries claim
to be free of the disease due to:
Successful elimination programs and/or to their island
status
Enforcement of rigorous quarantine regulations
Cont…
RABIES: ZOONOTIC IMPLICATIONS
❑ The prime importance of rabies is its transmissibility to
humans, with veterinarians being at special risk
❑ Human rabies is extremely rare in countries where canine

rabies is controlled by regular vaccination

Cont…
According to the WHO:
➢ Rabies occurs in more than 150 countries and territories
➢ More than 60,000 die of rabies every year worldwide,
➢ About 56% of which occur in Asia and 44% in Africa,

particularly in rural areas on both continents.
➢ 40% of people who are bitten by suspect rabid animals

are children under 15 years of age
➢ Dogs are the source of 99%By Zelalem

of human rabies deaths.
A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 91
Cont…

Cont…

Cont…

PRESENCE DOG MEDIATED HUMAN RABIES 2017

Cont…
An estimated 21,476 human deaths occur each year in
Africa due to dog-mediated rabies.
❑ Africa is estimated to spend the least on PEP(post-

exposure prophylaxis) and have the highest cost of human
mortality.
❑ With improved access to PEP and reduced prevalence of

dog-mediated rabies, a significant number of lives could be
saved (WHO, 2019). By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 96
Rabies in Ethiopia
❑ Each year, thousands of people are infected with rabies in Ethiopia and
❑ An estimated 2,700 people die, one of the highest rabies

death rates in the world,
❑ Meanwhile, the true number of deaths caused by rabies is unknown

because:
➢ The disease is underreported and
➢ Rabies diagnostic laboratories are not established (CDC, 2019).

Cont…
The human risk for rabies is directly linked to the high rate in dogs
❑ The rabies vaccination coverage among dogs is very low in Ethiopia,
far below the 70 percent needed to halt the transmission of canine rabies.
❑ This is partly due to lack of awareness about rabies vaccination

among dog owners and high number of stray dogs in the country.
❑ The total number of animal rabies cases in Ethiopia is unknown, but

with a rural and farming population of more than 80%, annual livestock
losses caused by rabies place a large societal and economic burden on the
country.
Cont…..

Cont…
Etiology
➢ Virus of the family Rhabdoviridae and the genus Lyssavirus
➢ Virus sensitive to sunlight and ultraviolet radiation
➢ Vulnerable to disruption by detergents (soap solution)
➢ Acid disinfectants are best suited for decontamination
Persist in infected brain tissue for up to 10 days at room

temperature By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 100
Cont….
Transmission
➢ Rabies virus affect all warm-blooded animals
➢ The source of infection is always an infected animals
➢ The method of spread is almost always by the bite of an

infected animal

Cont….
Contamination of skin wounds by fresh saliva may also result in infection
➢ Saliva is usually infectious at the time of clinical sign
❖ But it is possible for dogs and cats to shed the virus for several days before
onset of clinical sign
➢ Inter-bat spread and spread from bats to other species is principally by bites
❖ But infection by inhalation also occurs

PATHOGENESIS:
Rabies virus enters peripheral nerves, or may
replicate in myocytes and spread to motor nerve
endings(A)
Retrograde intra-axonal (centripetal) spread to the

CNS occurs in peripheral motor nerves (B)
Virus replicates in spinal cord neurons and spreads

rapidly throughout the nervous system, causing
progressive lower motor neuron paralysis(C)
Virus enters the brain, causing cranial nerve deficits

and behavioral changes
centrifugally
Hematogenous spread does not occur (Art by Kip Carter © 2004 University
of Georgia Research Foundation Inc.)
Presence of virus in the saliva indicates that the CNS has
been infected.
Cont…
Host range and susceptibility
➢ All mammals susceptible with a varying degree
➢ Rabies reservoir species are found among

members of carnivores (dogs, foxes..) and bats
➢ Bats represent a serious threat of spread of rabies

because of their migratory habits
Cont…
Domestic livestock like cattle are rarely a source of
infection
➢ Spread of the rabies virus is often seasonal and, with

the highest incidence in the late summer and autumn
❖ Large scale movement of wild animals at mating time

and in pursuit of food
Cont…
RABIES: DIAGNOSIS
❑ Sampling for diagnosis
➢ Secretions and biological fluids (saliva, spinal fluid..)
➢ Brain tissue the preferred specimen for PME
➢ The hippocampus, medulla oblongata, cerebellum

Cont…
Diagnosis techniques
➢ PCR (for detecting viral RNA)
➢ Direct fluorescent antibody test (detecting viral

antigen)
➢ Antigenic capture ELISA
➢ Rapid immune diagnostic test

Cont….
RABIES: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
➢ The most rational approach to reducing human rabies is to
reduce the prevalence and incidence of disease in carnivores
➢ Notification of suspected cases and destruction of dogs

with clinical signs and dog bitten by a suspected rabid
animals
➢ Mass immunization of dogs by campaigns and by

continuing vaccination of young dogs
Cont…
Elimination of stray dogs and cats
➢ Dog registration
➢ Imposition of quarantine on imported dogs
➢ In farm animals:
❑ Prevention of exposure, Controlling access of
wildlife
❖ Vaccination of wild animals

Cont…
Pre-exposure vaccination
➢ Community education
➢ Pre-exposure immunization of all vets and rabies lab
workers
➢ If humans are bitten by healthy dog (but suspected):
❖ The suspected dog should be kept in strict quarantine

for at least 2 wks.
❖ Post-exposure vaccination of the exposed subject
3 AFRICAN HORSE SICKNESS
Importance
➢ A serious, often fatal, viral disease of horses
and mules
➢ Mortality rate:70-95 % in horses
➢ 50-70% in mules
Cont…
Etiology
➢ AHSV belongs to the genus Orbivirus and family
Reoviridae.
➢ There are 9 immunologically distinct serotypes

Serotype 9 is widespread in endemic regions
Serotypes 1 to 8 found only in limited geographical areas.

AHS: EPIDEMIOLOGY
❑ Geographical distribution
▪ Endemic in sub-Saharan Central and East Africa
▪ Sometimes in S. Africa and in N. Africa
▪ Outside Africa:Outbreaks reported in the Middle East,Spain,

Portugal, Pakistan and India
▪ AHS is a very serious disease in Ethiopia
▪ Ethiopia had a serious outbreaks in 2002–2003

Cont…
Species affected
▪ Horses, mules, donkeys, zebras, camels and dog
▪ The most serious infections occur in horses and
mules
▪ Donkeys and zebras rarely develop serious clinical
signs
❑ Transmission: Transmitted by midges in the
genus Culicoides
✓ Both Culicoides imicola* and C. bolitinos
EOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AHS

Distribution of Culicoides imicola and study area (Guichard, et al., 2014, Plos one)

Cont...
AHS: CLINICAL SIGNS
❑ The pulmonary form: The most serious
▪ Characterized by fever, depression, severe respiratory
distress and severe dyspnea, frothy nasal discharge, death
❑ The cardiac form: usually characterized by

▪ Fever, edema of the head, neck, chest, and supraorbital
fossae
▪ Petechial hemorrhages in the eyes, on the tongue

Cont…
The mixed form:
Often the most common form
It is a combination of the cardiac and the pulmonary form
Also causes a high mortality rate, of app. 70%
Death usually occurring within 3 to 6 days after onset of fever

AHS: PREVENTION AND CONTROL
❖ Surviving Equidae develop solid immunity to the

homologous serotype
❖ Vaccination
▪ Live-attenuated multivalent vaccines in endemic regions;
may not be safe in AHS-free countries
▪ Inactivated vaccines: give two doses

Cont…
Vector control
❖ All Equidae should be stabled in insect-proof
housing from dusk to down
❖ If AHS is detected in a country where it is not
endemic:
▪ A strict quarantine zone and movement controls
should be established
▪ Euthanasia of infected and exposed animals may be
considered

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Bule Hora University, College of Agricultural

Science, School OF Veterinary Medicine

COURSE: Veterinary Preventive Medicine

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 1

HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 2

The most important needs of human being is a

The process of technical activities improves the welfare of

Farming becomes profitable only for farmers who adopt new

However, an appreciation during the 1960s of the multifactorial nature

Secondly, it became necessary to consider disease in terms of

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 7

 The second change resulted in the evolution of

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 8

It is a combination of well designed veterinary activities and good

It is a multidisciplinary approach in concepts, methods, and strategies applied in

Preventive medicine refers to measures taken to prevent diseases rather than

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 10

Defense system is a remarkably versatile system that

The system is a collection of mechanisms that protect

The system detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses

Protects the organism with layered defenses of increasing

 If a pathogen breaches physical barriers, innate immune

However, detection may become complicated when pathogens

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 15

The defense system of vertebrates consists of many types of molecules

Thus, more complex immune mechanism of vertebrates adapts over time to

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 17

This resistance is not only to infectious diseases but also to

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 19

Non-specific (innate, natural) resistance

 First line of defense,

 Lines of natural defense in innate immunity can be grouped in to four:

 Genetically (hereditary trait) and constitutionally determined

 Exposure leads to effective and immediate maximal response.

But if breached, it assumes catalytic functions in setting the specific

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 23

It is a trait that is effective against large amount of disease and

It is complete insusceptibility of a host

All anatomical and physiological properties are constitutional and

Eg. Skin, mucous membrane, hair and ciliated epithelium, coughing,

E.G. macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, mast cells,natural

Neutrophils- activity increases by Magnesium makes the animal to absorb more

E.G. complement, lysozyme, interferon, opsonin, properdin, etc.

They are all a product of metabolism, their amount genetically

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 30

The most significant effect on lysozyme actively comes from stress,

2.The alternative path way- complement are activated when

It is named for its ability to complement the killing of pathogens

Contains over 20 different serum proteins.

Complement is the major humoral component of the innate

belong to the large class of glycoproteins known as cytokines

One of a cytokine with anti-viral effect.

Blocks host cell receptors, preventing attachment of viral

Interferon produced against one virus protects infection with

Their collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign

Lag time between exposure and maximal response

Both humoral and cellular components involved

An immunogen is any agent capable of inducing an immune response. In

By themselves, these compounds are incapable of inducing an immune

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 40

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 41

By Zelalem A. (DVM, MVSc, Ass. proff) 42