ELEMENTS

of the
A u d i o – V i s u a l
Arts
A. Music
 Music is the art of combining sounds of
varying pitch to produce a coherent
composition that is melodious, harmonious,
intelligible, and expressive of ideas and
emotions.
Elements of
Music
 Pitch
 The relative highness or lowness of
a tone.
 Volume
 The loudness or softness of a sound. It
ranges from very soft (pianissimo) and soft
(piano) to very loud (fortissimo) and loud
(forte). The volume is louder when a singer
belts out compared to the volume when he
simply whispers.
Tempo or Rate
 The speed of a composition or any of its
sections. Ballads have a slow tempo, whereas
dance songs have a fast rate. Terms such as
allegro (fast), vivace (lively), moderato
(moderate speed), andante (moderately slow),
adagio (slower than andante), lento (slow), and
largo (very slow) are related to tempo.
 Duration
 The length of time during which a sound
is produced. Some sounds are longer than
the others.
 Timbre
 The quality of sound that makes it
distinct from other sounds. Thus, a listener
can distinguish the voices of Regine
Velasquez, Jaya, Janno Gibbs, and Ogie
Alcasid; likewise, he can recognize the
sounds of a flute, a guitar, a drum, and a
piano.
 Rhythm
 The consistent pattern or succession of
identical or similar sounds. This is
illustrated by the succession of similar
sounds in a song, as follows: introduction,
stanza one, chorus, refrain, stanza two,
chorus, refrain, coda, and conclusion.
 Melody
 The series of consecutive tones that vary in
pitch and duration but form a line of
individual significance and expressive value.
It is an orderly succession of tones or musical
sounds. It is the one remembered by a listener
or the one he whistles or hums, especially so
when he does not know the lyrics.
 Harmony
 The simultaneous sounding of two or
more tones. When three or more tones are
sounded simultaneously, there exists a chord.
 Texture
 The number of tones expected to be
apprehended simultaneously. It is either
monophonic (sounding of a single melodic line
without an accompaniment), polyphonic
(simultaneous sounding of two or more melodic
lines of relatively equal interest), or homophonic
( sounding of one main melody supported by a
subordinate one, as in the performance of a folk
singer with a guitar accompaniment).
 Form
 The overall organization of the composition. It is
associated with shape, structure, and coherence. All
the musical elements are put together to come up
with the cohesive whole called form. Jose Palma’s
lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem titled
“Lupang Hinirang” were arranged into a march by
Julian Felipe. All the notes and all the other
components of the song constitute its form.
B. Dance
 Dance is a form of art using rhythmic
bodily movements expressing ideas and
emotions and accompanied by music. As
an art form, it may tell a story, set a mood, or
express an emotion.
 Dance
 It is a form of exercise; a number of people
who want to be physically fit turn to
dancing. Obese people who want to lose
weight do the same.
 Dance
 It is also a form of recreation; dances are
almost always a part of parties and other
social activities. It is also a form of
socialization; ballrooms and dance halls are
venues where people socialize, meet new
friends, and form new associations.
 Dance
 Music and dance are allied arts. As such,
they share many similarities. Among these
similarities are that they are both performing
arts, that they have a temporary or transient
nature, and that they are enjoyed by artists
and audience alike. They are also related to
each other in that music is an important
element of dance.
Elements of
Dance
 Dancer
 The dancer is the most important
element of dance. Since he is the performer,
there won’t be a dance without him. He
executes the steps, follows the instructions of
the choreographer, wears the costumes, and
carries the props.
 Choreography
 A choreographer is the dance director.
He does the overall design of the dance,
assigns the steps to be executed by the
dancer/s, selects the costumes and props that
go with the dance, and determines the set
designed for the dance.
 Choreography
 Geleen Eugenio used to choreograph the
Universal Motion Dancers or UMD and the
“Starstruck” finalists, and Maribeth Bichara did
the choreography for the VIP Dancers. The two
are not only good choreographers but also good
dancers. To be a good choreographer, one
must be a good dancer.
 Design
 Design is the planned organization of
pattern of movements in time and space. It
involves the movements and the positioning
of the dancers, and the steps executed by
them.
 Design
 An outstanding dance performance is
always dependent on the design of the dance.
Thus, the dancers of a dance troupe discuss
the design of the dance, together with the
choreographer, before they start their
rehearsal.
 Subject
 Subject is the message of the dance.
Simply put, it tells what the dance is about.
For example, the theme of the Ifugao war
dance is the rivalry between two tribes that
leads to an armed conflict. Subjects of the
dances differ from one dance to another.
 Movements
 Movements are classified into steps,
gestures, and facial expressions. Steps are
the dancers’ movements from one point on
stage to another, these include leaps, turns,
rolls, and somersaults.
 Movements
 Gestures are the movements of their
heads, hands, feet, and other body parts;
these include swaying, head shaking, foot
stomping, and clapping.
 Movements
 Facial expressions are the movements of
their facial parts, as exemplified by the
raising of eyebrows, pouting of lips, and
crumpling of forehead.
 Technique
 Technique is the style or way of executing
the movements. For example, the grind may
be done singly or doubly or the twist may be
done quickly or slowly.
 Properties
 More commonly called props, properties
are the things carried by the dancers as
they perform.
 Properties
 These include the glasses with lighted
candles (pandanggo sa ilaw), sombreros
(pandanggo sa sambalilo), fans (fan dance),
umbrellas (umbrella dance), sticks
(sakuting), pots (banga), spears and shileds
(singkil), towels, torches, and so on.
 Costumes
 Costumes are the things worn by the
dancers during their performance. These
include the head gear, the upper garments,
the lower garments, and the footwear.
 Costumes
 Hats, caps, fez, bonnets, helmets, crowns,
turbans, and hoods are among the head gear.
Blouses, kimono, kimono, baro’t saya,
malong, patadyong, traje, gowns, Maria
Clara dresses, skirts, bloomers, and the like
are garments for female dancers,
 Costumes
 while shirts, camisa de chino, barong
Tagalog, shorts, long pants, trousers, G-
strings, and the like are garments for male
dancers. Their footwear may be shoes,
slippers, sandals, socks, and stockings.
 Set Design
 The setting or the background that
includes the place of action for the
dancers. Vintas are placed as backdrop for
singkil, a vintage Spanish-inspired house for
jota, and nipa huts for tinikling.
 Other theatrical
elements
 Elements such as lighting effects, sound
effects, visual effects, and the like form part
of a dance performance when the dance is
performed as part of a musical play or when
it is a theatrical dance.
C. Drama or
Theater
Drama is a form of art that depicts
life’s experiences through the re-
enactment of events that take place
in the real world or happen in the
mind of the writer. More often than
not, it mirrors life.
 Drama or
Theater
 Derived from the Greek word dran
meaning to act or to do, drama is
performed on stage or in front of the
camera by actors and actresses under the
supervision of the director. Like music and
dance, drama serves to inform and
entertain.
 Drama or
Theater
 Unlike the other two performing arts, it serves
to persuade because it can be used as
propaganda. It still has other purposes: to help
conserve a country’s or society’s legends, to
execute its laws, to explore its problems, to
demonstrate its codes, to ridicule its
weaknesses, and to extend its knowledge.
 Drama or
Theater
 The elements of play production vary from
one medium to another. For instance, editing
and cinematography do not apply to a stage
play. Besides, editing and cinematography,
lighting effects and visual effects do not apply
to a radio play.
 Drama or
Theater
 Generally, the elements of play production are the
literary elements, direction, acting, editing, set
design, production design, cinematography, costume
design, make-up, properties, light or lighting effects,
sound effects, visual effects, theme song, musical
score, story, and script.
Elements of
Drama or
Theater
 Direction
 The director is the overall in charge of the
dramatic performance. He instructs the actors
and all the people involved in the production from
the production assistants to the cameramen, props
men, effects men, designers, writers, editors,
cinematographers, and so on.
 Direction
 He is always present from the pre-
production stage to the post-production stage
of the play. The internationally acclaimed
Lino Brocka epitomizes a good director.
 Acting
 The members of the cast perform the roles
assigned to them by the director. The read the
script, memorize their lines, follow the instructions
given by the director, and give justice to their
assigned roles.
 Acting
 Among the actors groomed into high-calibre
performers by Lino Brocka were Christopher De
Leon (“Tinimbang Ka Ngunit Kulan”), Bembol
Roco (“Maynila: Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag”), Hilda
Koronel (“Insiang” and “Maynila: Sa mga Kuko ng
Liwanag”), Philip Salvador (“Jaguar” and “Kapit sa
Patalim”), Nora Aunor (“Bona”), Gina Alajar
(“Orapronobis”), and Vilma Santos (“Sister Stella
L”).
 Editing
 The editor sequences the scenes to be
presented in such a way that they make up
a coherent whole. Like a newspaper editor
who deletes unnecessary words from a news
article, he takes out unnecessary scenes,
particularly the obscene and offensive ones.
 Set Design
 The set designer does the layout of the set. He
determines what to place as backdrop and what to
put on stage. For example, the design for the set of
the play, “New Yorker in Tondo,” is a simulation of
a living room of a middle-class family residing in
Tondo, Manila. Set designs are classified into
realistic, abstract, suggestive, or functional.
 Production
Design
 Similar to the set designer for a stage play,
the production designer is tasked to do the
overall design for a drama to be shown on
the small screen or the wide screen.
 Production
Design
 Opposed to a set designer, a production
designer has a bigger responsibility because his
work is not only limited to a studio, a room, or
the stage but it covers an area as wide as a
small community or a large province.
 Production
Design
 At times, his work also involves designing
costumes, determining the props to be used, and
collaborating with the cinematographer. For
example, the production designs of fantasy
movies such as “Exodus” and “Harry Potter”
are elaborate.
Cinematograph
y
 The cinematographer is the person who takes
charge of the photography. He looks for a location
that fits the story and, with the aid of the
cameramen, shoots the scenes forming part of the
drama. For example, some of the underwater scenes
of the top-rated television series “Dyesebel” were
shot in Palawan.
 Costume
Design
 The costume designer creates the clothes to be
worn by the actors and actresses. Akin to a
fashion designer who comes up with fashionable
clothes appealing to his target market, he sees to it
that the costumes suit the characters to be
portrayed by the performers. For example, the
actors in “Star Trek” and “Star Wars” wear
outlandish costumes to signify that they are aliens.
 Make-up
 The make-up artist beautifies or uglifies the
actors and actresses based on the roles they
portray. For example, Vilma Santos and Anne
Curtis , who played the role of “Kampanerang Kuba,
“ were made ugly and humpbacked. Sam Milby was
turned obese in the film “My Big Love” in much the
same way as Jopay Paguia became the fat
“Tabachingching” in a television series.
 Make-up
 Linda Blair looked terrifying in the horror movie
entitled “The Exorcist.” Make-up is made up of
body paints (tattoos, lipsticks, face powder, and the
like) and paddings (a hump on one’s back, a big
tummy to show obesity or pregnancy, and an
artificial nose for the Pinocchio character).
 Properties
 The properties (props for short) are the things
which the actors and actresses carry or bring
with them as they perform on stage or in front of
the camera in order to establish their characters.
For example, a driver brings with him a hand towel;
a farmer, a bolo; a fisherman, a fishnet; a female
prostitute, a pack of cigarettes; a vendor, his goods;
and a teacher, books.
 Light or lighting
effects
 The lights man is in charge of determining the
amount (bright or dark) and the sources (sun,
lamp, flashlight, or candle) of light needed to
make scenes realistic and credible. For example, if
it is nighttime and the production people are going
to shoot a daytime scene, the lights must be in full
blast. The reverse is true if a nighttime scene is to be
shot during daytime.
 Light or lighting
effects
 The persons involved in lighting effects must
have a way of letting the audience know if the
scene is taking place at dawn, in the morning, at
noon, in the afternoon, at dusk, or in the
evening.
 Sound Effects
 The sound effects man is in charge of
determining the amount (loud or soft) and the
sources (people, animals, objects, e.g., horns, and
others, e.g., thunder) of sound needed to make
the scenes realistic and credible. For example, if
the scene to be shot is in a busy street within the
university belt, sounds such as the shouting of
vendors, the honking of horns, and the noise
emanating from moving vehicles must be present.
 Visual Effects
 The visual effects man is in charge of
producing those sights that are not usually
captured by the camera in order to make
the scenes effective, exciting, and
appealing to the viewers.
 Visual Effects
 Examples are the division of the Red Sea in
“The Ten Commandments,” the flying scenes of
“Mulawin” and “Majika” characters, the
disappearing and reappearing acts of
“Encantadia” and “La Vendetta” characters, and
the duplication or multiplication of the characters
in “Darna” and “Joaquin Bordado.”
 Theme Song
 The theme song is the song composed to
represent the theme or the subject matter of
the drama. For example, Celine Dion’s “My
Heart Will Go on” and Mandy Moore’s “Only
Hope” are appropriate theme songs for the
films “Titanic” and “A walk to Remember,”
respectively.
 Musical Score
 The theme song is not only song played in a drama,
whether it is a comedy, a tragedy, a melodrama, or
another genre. There are other songs played to set
the mood (for example, romantic), to excite the
audience (as in scenes showing the protagonist
chasing the antagonist, or vice versa), or keep the
viewers glued to their seats (as in “High School
Musical,” “Xanadu,” and “Saturday Night Fever”).
 Musical Score
 In Sharon Cuneta’s movies, “Bituing Walang
Ningning” and “P.S. I Love You,” the theme songs
having the same titles were not the only songs
rendered; there were a lot of songs played to the
delight of the audience. Thus, the musical scorer is
tasked to arrange the music that forms part of the
drama.
 Story
 The story is one of the most important
aspects of a play for without it, there won’t
be any production. The story may be an
adaption (Lea Salonga’s musical play entitled
“Cinderella” is an adaptation of the fairy tale
with the same title.) or an original narrative
(“My Best Friend’s Girlfriend”).
 Story
 The story is the brainchild of the writer of
the original story or of the author of the
novel (Lualhati Bautista’s Bata, Bata, Paano Ka
Ginawa and Dekada ‘70), short story, epic
poetry (Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey), or any
literary piece turned into a play.
 Script
 The script is that which contains the
dialogue or the lines to be memorized by
the performers. It also contains the
director’s instructions. The author of the
story is oftentimes the scripwriter. For
example, Ricardo Lee prepares the scripts
for the stories he writes.
 Script
 There are times when the story writer is
different from the scripwriter; in this case,
the two collaborate to make the drama an
effective medium for communicating ideas
and emotions, and for entertaining the
theatre- or movie-going public.
 Literary
Elements
 The literary elements of drama are the
setting, characters, plot, theme, conflict,
point of view, tone, mood, and atmosphere.
 Many people, particularly the Filipinos, have
misconceptions regarding dramas. Two of these are
that a drama is a tear jerker and that a comedy is a
bone-tickler. Not all dramas are serious and tend to
let the audience cry since comedies, which are
dramatic forms, tend to make the audience laugh.
Not all comedies are funny because there are those
that are mostly serious.
 To get rid of these misconceptions, a reader
(drama as a literary art) or viewer (drama as
a performing art) must possess a thorough
knowledge of the kinds of drama. These are
tragedies, comedies, tragicomedies, farces,
melodramas, religious plays, historical plays,
and so on.
 Tragedy
 A tragedy is a drama in which the hero
fails to fulfil his goal or goals. His failure is
attributed to his tragic flaw, a fatal mistake.
The protagonist cannot overcome an
inevitable failure although he may show
courage along the way.
 Tragedy
 The narrative ends unhappily for the hero with
whom the viewers sympathize; thus, it is regarded as
a sad-ending story. However, a tragedy does not
necessarily end with the hero’s death. Examples are
the well-loved Theban plays of Sophocoles,
“Oedipus Rex” and “Antigone,” which are popular
tragedies performed in school theaters and similar
venues.
 Comedy
 A comedy is a drama in which the hero
succeeds in fulfilling his goal or goals.
Sometimes, it is comic all throughout as a
comedy of manners or a slapstick comedy
such that the viewers laugh and laugh as they
watch the performance.
 Comedy
 There are comedies that are partially funny
or more serious than funny; nevertheless,
they are considered comedies because they
focus on the protagonist who is successful in
his plans. Because the narrative ends happily
for the hero, it is considered a happy-ending
story.
 Comedy
 Comedies are classified into situational
comedy (sitcom), romantic comedy
(romcom), comedy of idea, and comedy of
manners. Examples of this type are the
comic films of Dolphy, the Comedy King of
the Philippines, whose “John en Marsha,”
“Facifica Falayfay,” and “Tatay Nick” were
top-grossers.
 Tragicomedy
 A tragicomedy is a drama in which the
hero fails with respect to some goals but
succeeds with respect to the other goals. It
is merely a combination of a tragedy and a
comedy.
 Farce
 A farce is a drama written by an author
whose intention is to poke fun at the hero,
his subject. The hero, oftentimes
symbolizing a public official or a person of
authority, is rendered ridiculous. The
dramatic tone is satirical.
 Melodrama
 A Melodrama is a drama that focuses not
on the protagonist, but on the action or
the situation. It is characterized by a
sentimental love story, sensational actions,
extravagant emotions, and a happy
ending. Most of Sharon Cuneta’s films are
melodramatic.
 Religious Play
 A religious play is a drama that serves to
reenact a biblical event or to teach a truth or
truths pertaining to a certain religion.
Examples of religious plays are mystery plays,
miracle plays, morality plays, and passion play
(cenaculo). Mel Gibson’s “The Passion of the
Christ” is a good example of this type.
Historical Play
 Just like religious play, a historical play
serves to reenact a historical event that
plays an important role on the lives of the
viewers. Examples of this are “Rizal the
Move,” “Rizal sa Dapitan,” “Macario
Sacay,” and “General Luna.”
 Musical Play
 Also known as an opera, a musical play is
an art form that combines music and
drama. Dealing with any subject, it differs
from other plays inasmuch as the performers
do not say their lines, but sing them. The
performers here must not only be good
actors, but also be good singers.
 Musical Play
 Therefore, the producers of the Filipino
production of the Hindu epic Ramayana
entitled “Rama at Sita” hired the services of
Lani Misalucha, Jaya, Ariel Rivera, and
Franco Laurel.
 Musical Play
 It involves dances, too. Because it is a
combined art, it has elements that are not
present in a pure dramatic form. These are as
follows: overture (introduction), aria
(performance by a solo singer), duet
(performance by two singers), trio
(performance by three singers),
 Musical Play
 quartette (performance by four singers),
quintette (performance by five singers),
sextette (performance by six singers),
septette (performance by seven singers),
intermezzos and interludes (orchestral
pieces played between acts and scenes),
recitative (recited part), chorus (choral or
group singing), and dance.
D. Literature
 According to Webster, literature is a collection of
writings in prose or verse, especially writings
having excellence of form or expression and
expressing ideas of permanent or universal
interest. From the definition of literature can be
derived its characteristics: expressive or
imaginative writing, nobility of thought,
universality, and timelessness.
 Literature
 Poems, essays, plays, short stories, and
novels are forms of expressing ideas and
emotions; they may be based wholly on the
writers’ imagination, on facts, or on a
combination of both.
 Literature
 Literary pieces that excel or stand out are products
of noble or great minds; thus, writers whose works
stand out are considered intellectual and their works
which stand the test of time are termed classics, for
example, the works of William Shakespeare.
Literary works that transcend time and place are
described as timeless and universal, respectively.
 Literature
 The term “literature” came from the Latin
word “literatura,” meaning “writing” or
“learning,” or from the Latin word
“literatus,” meaning “literate” or
“learned.” As such, a literary piece is
produced by someone who is literate or
learned in the language or culture of a social
group.
 Literature
 Hence, Philippine literature is a body of
writings by those Filipinos who are not only
literate in Tagalog or other Philippine
languages, but also knowledgeable in
Philippine culture. It is embodiment of
Philippine culture and a reflection of
Philippine society.
 Literature
 Indeed, the two novels of Philippine
national hero, Dr. Jose P. Rizal, “Noli Me
Tangere” and El Filibusterismo,” embody
Philippine culture and reflect Philippine
society during his time.
 Literature
 Literature is divided into two broad genres-
poetry and prose. Poetry is that broad genre
of literature that is written in stanza form.
It is characterized by a regular rhythmic
pattern, rhyme, horizontal and/or vertical
measure, imagery, symbolism, and figurative
language. Making it distinct from prose forms,
these elements are as follows:
Elements of
Poetry
 Measure
 Measure involves the counting of the
number of lines and stanzas (vertical
measure) and the number of syllables and
feet (horizontal measure).
 Vertical
Measure
 Poems and stanzas are classified according to the
number of lines. When a stanza or a poem has two
lines, it is called couplet; three lines, a triplet (the
three lines rhyme) or tercet (the first and last lines
rhyme); four lines, quatrain or quartet; five lines,
cinquain or quitain; six lines, sestet; seven lines,
septet; eight lines, octave; nine lines, nonet; and
so forth.
 Horizontal
Measure
 Lines are described according to the number of
syllables. A line with one syllable is described as
monosyllabic; with two syllables, disyllabic;
with three syllables, trisyllabic; with four
syllables, tetrasyllabic; with five syllables,
pentasyllabic; with six syllables, hexasyllabic;
with seven syllables, heptasyllabic;
 Horizontal
Measure
 With eight syllables, octosyllabic; with
nine syllables, nonasyllabic; with ten
syllables, decasyllabic; with eleven
syllables, undecasyllabic; and with twelve
syllables, dodecasyllabic.
 Horizontal
Measure
 When lines are measured according to the number
of feet or meters, they are classified as follows: a
line with one foot, monometer; with two feet,
dimeter; with three feet, trimeter; with four feet,
tetrameter; with five feet, pentameter; with six
feet, hexameter; with seven feet, heptameter; and
with eight feet, octameter.
 Rhythm
 Rhythm is the regular succession of accented
and unaccented syllables in a line. It is
associated with the metrical feet, which are
classified as follows: iamb, a foot with an
unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable;
anapest, a foot with two unstressed syllables
followed by a stressed syllable; trochee, a foot
with a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed
syllable;
 Rhythm
 dactyl, a foot with a stressed syllable
followed by two unstressed syllables;
spondee, a foot with two stressed syllables;
and pyrrhic foot, a foot with two unstressed
syllables.
 Rhyme
 Rhyme is the presence of words that
have similar or identical final sounds. For
example, reading the poem entitled “How
Do I Love Thee?” by Elizabeth Barrett-
Browning, one can observe the rhyming of
terminal words.
 Internal
Rhyme
 When the rhyming words are found
within one line, an internal rhyme
exist.
 Terminal
Rhyme
 When the rhyming words are found
at the end of lines, a terminal rhyme
exists.
Perfect Rhyme
 Perfect rhyme occurs when the final sounds of
rhyming words are identical. Paired words such as
choose and lose, death and breath, and rhyme and
dime exhibit perfect rhyme.
 Approximate
Rhyme
 Approximate rhyme occurs when the final sounds
of rhyming words are similar. Paired words such as
thing and sin, meet and fit, and ice and eyes show
approximate rhyme.
 Eye Rhyme
 Eye rhyme occurs when the words have identical
final letters which do not sound the same; thus, the
words appear to rhyme. Paired words such as lone
and done, heroine and entwine, groan and roan
exhibit eye rhyme.
 Masculine
Rhyme or
Single Rhyme
 Masculine rhyme occurs when the rhyming words
have one (single) syllable each. Paired words such
as stake and make, main and sane, and maim and
same exhibit masculine rhyme.
 Feminine
Rhyme or
Double Rhyme
 Feminine rhyme occurs when the rhyming words
have two (double) syllables each and the stress on
the first syllable. Paired words such as father and
mother, loving and hating, and action and station
exhibit feminine rhyme.
 Compound
Rhyme
 Compound rhyme occurs when the rhyming words
are compound words forming two pairs of rhyming
words. Paired words such as fish broth and
dishcloth, love boat and sob note, and hair band
and Fairland exhibit compound rhyme.
 Monorime
 A monorime exists when all the lines in the stanza
have the same final sound. A tanaga, a korido, and
an awit have monoriming quatrains with lines of
seven, eight, and twelve syllables, respectively.
 Dirime
 A dirime exists when a stanza has two pairs or sets
of rhyming words. Thus, a quatrain which has a
rhyme pattern of abab, abba, or aabb exhibits
dirime.
 Tririme
 A tririme exists when a stanza has three pairs or
sets of rhyming words. Hence, a sestet having a
rhyme pattern of abcabc, aabbcc, or abccba, exhibits
tririme.
 Rime Riche or
Identical
Rhyme
 Rime riche or identical rhyme occurs when the
rhyming words are homonyms. It is exemplified by
paired words such as steak and stake, main and
mane, and pail and pale.
 Imagery
 Imagery is the creation of a picture or pictures by
using words that appeal to the senses. It is either
visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile or
tactual, kinaesthetic, or thermal.
Visual Imagery
 Visual imagery involves the sense of sight. Words
pertaining to size (big, small, tall, etc. ), shape (ovoid,
triangular, octagonal, etc. ), color (azure, verdant,
fuchsia, etc. ), and similar physical characteristics
contribute to the visual imagery.
 Auditory
Imagery
 Auditory imagery involves the sense of hearing.
Words pertaining to sound (loud, soft, noisy, etc.)
present auditory imagery.
 Olfactory
Imagery
 Olfactory imagery involves the sense of smell.
Words pertaining to odors or scents (stinking,
aromatic, pungent, etc.) present olfactory imagery.
 Gustatory
Imagery
 Gustatory imagery involves the sense of taste.
Words pertaining to taste (sweet, acrid, stale, etc.)
present gustatory imagery.
 Tactile or
Tactual
Imagery
 Tactile or tactual imagery involves the sense of
touch. Words pertaining to texture (rough, smooth,
etc.) and touch (slippery, wet, dry, etc. ) contribute to
tactile imagery.
 Kinesthetic
Imagery
 Kinesthetic imagery involves the sense of
movement. Words pertaining to motion (fast, slow,
quaking, etc.) present kinesthetic imagery.
 Thermal
Imagery
 Thermal imagery involves the sense of heat. It is
exemplified by heat-related words such as lukewarm,
hot, cold, etc.
 Symbolism
 Symbolism is manifested when one thing is let to
represent another. A symbol is something which
represents something else by association, resemblance,
or convention. For example, a mountain is used to
symbolize a great obstacle; a strong wall, a powerful
or influential person; flowers, ladies or women; and
butterflies and bees, men courting women.
 Figures of
Speech
 Figures of speech are those words and phrases
connotatively used by the writer to communicate an
abstract idea or to produce an effect that words used in
their ordinary or denotative sense can’t produce.
Simile, metaphor, hyperbole, personification, and etc.
 Prose
 Prose is that broad genre of literature that is
written in paragraph form. It is an expression
that does not have a regular rhythmic pattern. It differs
from poetry in the sense that it does not have measure
and rhyme, besides rhythm with sustained regularity.
All genres of prose, except essays, have the following
elements: setting, characters, theme, plot, conflict, and
point of view.
Elements of
Prose
 Setting
 Setting refers to the time and locale of
the story.
 Characters
 The characters are categorized into principal
and supporting characters.
 Characters
 The principal characters are the
protagonist and the primary
antagonist, whereas the supporting
characters are the supporting
antagonist, confidants, foil, and
background characters.
 Characters
 The principal characters may be
dynamic (change their traits as the story
progress) or static (remain the same
throughout the story).
 Characters
 The traits of the characters are revealed
by their speech and actions, by the
author’s descriptions, by what other
characters say about them, and by their
juxtaposition with other characters.
 Characters
 Their characterization is divided into four
levels: physical (sex, age, size, color, race,
etc.), social (economic status, profession,
trade, religion, family, language, and social
environment), psychological (mindset,
attitudes, and behaviors), and moral
(dilemma faced by the character).
 Theme
 The theme is the idea or concept of the
author expressed in a concise statement.
Referred to as the message of the story,
it concretizes the abstract idea the writer
wants to impart.
 Theme
 It may be ferreted out from the title of
the story, the plot, the atmosphere, the
dialogue of characters, the recurrent use
of imagery, and the use of symbols. In
some stories, for example, Aesop’s
fables, the theme is stated as the moral
of the story.
 Plot
 The plot is the chronological
sequence of events in the story. It is
divided into the following parts:
exposition, rising incident/s,
complication, crisis, climax, denouement
or resolution, falling incident/s and
conclusion.
 Exposition
 The first part of the plot, the
exposition introduces the setting and
the characters of the story. It is also
called the introduction or status quo.
When the story starts in the conflict or in
the middle, it is called in medias res.
 Rising
Incident/s
 The rising incidents are those
incidents that lead to the complication.
 Complication
 The complication is the longest part
of the narrative, in which the conflict
develops.
 Crisis
 The crisis is the problem of the story.
 Climax
 The climax is the highest point of the
story, during which the readers know
how the conflict will be resolved.
 Denouement or
Resolution
 The denouement or resolution is the
part of the plot in which the conflict is
resolved.
 Falling
Incident/s
 The falling incidents are those
incidents that lead to the conclusion.
 Falling
Incident/s
 Shorter than the rising action, the falling
action may still have some suspenseful
moments but, for the most part, gives the
reader or audience a sense of completion,
with the various unsettled issues at work
within the plot reaching some state of
resolution.
 Conclusion
 The conclusion is the last part of the
story’s plot. It gives the story some
finality. There are times, however, when
the story ends with a cliffhanger and the
reader is left to make his conclusion.
 Conflict
 Conflict is the motivating, driving
force that involves both characters and
readers in the narrative. Synonymous
with opposition, conflict is classified into
social, physical, metaphysical, and
internal or personal conflict.
 Social Conflict
 Social conflict exists when the
protagonist and the antagonist are
opposed to each other. Known as “man
versus man” conflict, it is exemplifies
by Cinderella opposed by her stepmother
and stepsisters.
 Physical
Conflict
 Physical conflict occurs when the
protagonist struggles against physical
forces such as natural calamities, illness,
and the like. Known as “man versus
nature” conflict, it is exemplified by the
father in the short story “Thirsty Is the Arid
Land” who dies of a lingering illness.
 Metaphysical
Conflict
 Metaphysical conflict exists when the
protagonist fights supernatural beings
such as gods and goddesses, vampires,
werewolves, elves, fairies, and the like.
 Metaphysical
Conflict
 This “man versus supernatural beings”
conflict is shown in the novels of J.K.
Rowling the Harry Potter series, and of J. R.
R. Tolkien, the “Lord of the Rings” series.
 Personal or
Internal or
Psychological
Conflict
 Personal or internal conflict occurs
when the character experiences a
dilemma. The conflict exists within the
person as what Rose encountered in
“Titanic” when she was torn between
two lovers, Jack and her fiance.
 Point of view
 The point of view is the angle of
narration. The frame of reference the
author takes in telling the story is either
first person or third person (omniscient,
objective, or selective).
Autobiographic
al Point of
View
 The autobiographical point of view is the
first-person of the “I” point of view. The
narrator is either the principal character or
any of the supporting characters who reports
his experiences to the readers.
 Omniscient
Third-Person
Point of View
 The omniscient third-person viewpoint is employed
by the author when the narrator does not take part in
the story, but as an all-knowing (omniscient) observer,
he sees all the events and knows the speech, actions,
thoughts, and emotions (SATE) of the characters and
reports them to the readers.
 Objective
Third-Person
Point of View
 The objective-third person viewpoint is
used by the writer when the narrator does
not take part in the story, but reports
objectively the events in the story.
 He states only what he observes, that
is, the speech and actions of the
characters, and not their thoughts and
emotions.
Selective Third-
Person Point of
View
 The selective-third person viewpoint is used by the
writer when the narrator does not take part in the story,
but he knows the speech, actions, thoughts, and
emotions of some characters and reports them,
however, with the rest of the characters, he reports
only their speech and actions.
 Tone
 The tone is the emotional climate
inherent in the story. It can be tragic,
angry, humorous, pathetic, condemning,
condescending, accusing, satirical,
cynical, romantic, sympathetic, etc.
 Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is either the
psychological environment or the
predominant tone or mood of the
literary piece.
Classification
of Characters
 Protagonist
 The protagonist or the hero is the main
character around whom the story revolves. In
the fairy tale entitled “Cinderella,” the protagonist
is Cinderella. More often than not, the protagonist
is a good hero or heroine. If the protagonist is a
bad one or does not possess the traits of a
conventional hero, he is described as an anti-hero
or an anti-heroine.
 Antagonist
 The antagonist or the villain is the
main or the supporting character who
opposes the protagonist. In
“Cinderella,” the antagonists are
Cinderella’s stepmother and stepsisters.
 Antagonist
 If the antagonist is not a human being
but a natural force, the villain is called
an antagonistic force, for example, a
fire or a cycle.
 Confidant/e
 The confidant or confidante (feminine) is
the supporting character upon whom the
protagonist confides. He is the sidekick of the
hero; he is a constant companion of the hero
and knows almost everything about the hero.
The fairy godmother must be the confidante of
Cinderella.
 Foil
 The foil is the supporting character
who serves as a contrast to the hero
but does not necessarily oppose him.
The traits of the foil balance those of the
hero.
 Background
Character
 The background characters are those
characters who provide reality to the
story by their mere presence. For
example, in “Cinderella,” they are the
people who attended the ball sponsored
by the prince.
 Unseen
Character
 The unseen character is an absent
character who, even in his absence,
affects the development of the story.
THE END
THE END