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Qualitative - CH 5
Qualitative - CH 5
Reliability Dependability
Objectivity Confirmability
Quality of Qualitative Research
Credibility
establishing that the results are credible from the perspective of the
participant
Transferability
degree to which results can be generalized to other contexts
Dependability
description by the researcher of changes within the context that the
research occurs and how these might affect conclusions
Confirmability
degree to which others can confirm or corroborate the results
Unobtrusive Measures
Indirect Measures
The researcher collects data without the
participant being aware of it
Attention must be paid to ethical considerations
Possibility of deception
Invasion of privacy
No informed consent
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
Content Analysis
Systematic analysis of text in order to identify
patterns
Thematic analysis of text
Indexing
Quantitative descriptive analysis
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
Content Analysis (cont’d)
May involve sampling from the population of
potential texts
Identification of units of analysis
Coding of units of analysis
Limitations
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
Secondary Analysis of Data
Re-analysis of quantitative data
May involve combining information from multiple
data sets
Can be used for replication or to subject data to
other, more sophisticated analyses
Limitations
Qualitative Research – some issues
Not everything that can be counted counts, and
not everything that counts can be counted
Albert Einstein
What do you know about
Qualitative Research?
What have you heard or read about qualitative
research?
Easy to do
Not scientific
Subjective
What do you know about
Qualitative Research?
What have you heard or read about qualitative
research?
Inductive: Finding a theory to explain one’s findings
Interactive research compared to quantitative:
spending time with respondents versus “drive byes.”
Data collection methods can be somewhat involved
Credibility of Qualitative Inquiry
Dependent on three distinct but related inquiry
elements:
Rigorous methods
fieldwork = yields high quality data – which are
systematically analyzed with attention to issues of
credibility
Credibility of the researcher
Dependent on training, experience, track record
Philosophical belief in the value of qualitative inquiry
naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods , inductive
analysis, purposeful sampling, holistic thinking
Comparing Quantitative &
Qualitative Methodologies
Which research methodology is represented by
these characteristics (Qual. or quant.)?
Purpose of the study
Pose problem/ raise Questions
Define research population
Develop time frame
Collect & analyze data
Present outcomes
Data Collection
Once you have identified that a qualitative
methodology best fits your research question, there are
numerous data collection strategies to select from….
Some considerations:
Full & unqualified consent
Site selection: Can be difficult. Knowing someone can help
get you in
Should have more than one way of collecting data –
triangulation
Establishing trust
Data Collection
Some considerations:
Access:
Unqualified access = total access to the research site
Qualified access = might need to select another research
site/participants
Informants: insider who knows environment/politics
Gate keepers (e.g. principal; dept chair, Ad)
Negotiating: Notes/data belong to you/respondent = confidentiality
What will you deliver??? Drafts of research writing, final paper,
Entering with a problem statement does not mean that it will
remain the same throughout the data collection
Emergent possibilities
Fieldwork
Possibilities & Pitfalls
Anxiety producing
Safe places
Being unobtrusive
Researcher wants to be sure not to call attention to self…
blending in is important…those observed should not even
know your are there after a while
Did you come in with preconceived opinions?
Fieldwork
Possibilities & Pitfalls
Establishing & Maintaining rapport
Rapport: Appearance, speech, behavior, must be acceptable
to research participants
Know the others’ language
Nonjudgmental
Inoffensive
Patient
Sense of humor
CONFIDENTIALITY
Subjectivity
Fieldwork
Observations
How long are you going to be in the field?
Field notes?
Videotape?
Can be highly problematic in schools
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Participant-Observation (wide range of
possibilities)
Helps researcher develop “trusted person” status
Allows researcher to observe how observed person’s
actions correspond to observed person’ words
Allows researcher to see the unexpected
Assists in the development of interview questions –
connecting to known behaviors you have observed
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Continuum of Participant-Observation:
Mostly observation to mostly participation
Where on the continuum you place yourself is directly
related to the questions you are asking, context of
study, and your theoretical framework
Main Goal of Participant-Observation: To
understand the research setting, participants and
their behaviors
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Participant-Observation Process:
Systematic observation & detailed recordings of
environment
Constant analysis of observations – “What’s
happening here?”
Evidence of personal bias: Am I being judgmental?
Data Collection Types/Aspects
Observation
General methods…
Studying the setting
Describing it in detail
“Making the familiar strange.”
What do you notice about the participants in their natural
settings?
interactions? Comparing their words/beliefs to their
actions
Non verbal feedback? Gestures?
Field notes
Notebook form
Needs to be detailed & thorough
Time consuming when done correctly
Descriptive and analytic
Field notes
Field notebook – primary recording tool (confidential)
Describes environment, people, events, activities,
interactions, researcher ideas, reflections, questions,
exploring researcher bias
After observation, researcher returns to notes to complete
detailed summaries and expand upon observations
Descriptive and analytic:
Accuracy without being judgmental
Such detail that you can visualize the moment a year later
Field Notes
Poor example of Field Notes:
“The class was disorderly and noisy”
Good example of Field Notes:
“The 5th grade class contained 15 girls and 12 boys.
When I entered they were in groups of 6. One group
of 4 girls were trying to see who could blow the
biggest bubble with their gum. A group of 5 boys
began imitating a martial arts movie they had seen on
TV…”
Field Notes
Analytic Notes:
Observer comments
Observer Comments to researcher – informal statements
the respondent makes
Daily reflection
Thoughts, concerns the researcher has with the setting,
study, emerging themes, etc.
Researcher acknowledges feelings, problems, ideas,
etc.
Interviewing
Questions:
Should be reflective of observations
What did you learn as a participant-observer?
Developing questions - Where should your questions
come from?
Format?
RAPPORT
Structured?
Open Ended?
Probing?
Non- Verbal Messages from respondent
Interviewing
Requires skill and practice
Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
Experience and behavior interview questions: What
respondents do or have done
Opinion and value questions: How respondents think
about their behaviors and experiences
Feeling questions: Questions that elicit how respondents
react emotionally to or feel about their experiences and
opinions
Continued…
Interviewing
Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
Knowledge questions: What respondents know about their
worlds
Sensory questions: elicit descriptions of what and how they
see, hear, touch, taste, smell the world around them
Background and demographic questions: Quest. That elicit
respondents’ descriptions of themselves
Interviewing
Other aspects of interviews
Key informants: possess special knowledge
May add information that researcher would otherwise not have
access too.
Can sensitize the researcher to aspects of the particular culture
being investigated
Possibilities of interviews: rich data, etc.
Possible pitfalls:
Interruptions
redirecting
poor questions
researchers inability to follow up/probe
Interviewing
Sequencing of Questions
facilitates completeness/comprehensiveness
Interviewing is not for everyone
Nature of interactions will change
Strengths/weaknesses
Need to be a good listener
Documents
Interviewing
Where will interview occur?
A convenient location for respondent?
When will you meet? Time of day is important- tired /rushed
How long do you anticipate it will last?
How often will you meet?
Audiotaped?
Interruptions?
Transcribing interviews-long , but meaningful process
Documents:
Curricular guides, newsletters, transcripts – corroborate
observations/findings LEADING TO trustworthiness
Data Analysis
Organizing what you have seen, heard, and read, so
that you can make sense of what you have learned.
Ongoing throughout study:
permits researcher to focus and shape the study as it
proceeds
Rudimentary Coding Scheme
Counting or enumerating items means they must defined
and located within data records
Categorizing; dividing & subdividing
Field notes are coded, audiotapes are coded
Data Analysis
Voluminous
Computer programs
Trustworthiness (Reflect on data –What is data
telling you?)
TRIANGULATION of data sources
Use of multiple data collection techniques = data collected in
1 way can be cross checked for accuracy with another
Prevents researcher from accepting to readily the validity of
initial impressions
Assists in correcting biases that occur when the researcher is
the only observer
Data Analysis
Trustworthiness (continued)
Observations, interviews, documents, etc.
Researcher bias – continual alertness
Peer debriefer
someone who reads your field notes, transcriptions,
interpretations
Member Checks
data sources provided to participants for their review,
comments, expansion of thoughts
Telling the Story
Maintaining confidentiality – Highest priority
“Writing is a political act” (Glesne & Peshkin):
Intended and Unintended consequences
Can respondents be subjected to unwanted publicity?
Keeping at it….
Include…Narratives/vignettes/direct quotations …
support the claims one makes in their findings