Watch the videos below before read through the

notes under this section.

1. An Introduction to Stress and Strain & Tensile Test & Shear Stress & Shear Strain: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQf6Q8t1FQE
2. Tensile test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
3. Tensile test & Stress-strain Diagram: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWgnBNOy-rA
4. Material Strength, Ductility and Toughness : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSRqJdT2COE
5. Understanding Poisson's Ratio: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuOlM3P7ygA
6. Understanding Young's Modulus: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLE-ieOVFjI
Mechanical Properties of
Metals and Alloys

Conducted by:
Dr. Shaifulazuar Rozali
Stress and Strain in Metals
 Tensile

• Metals undergo deformation under uniaxial tensile

force.

• Deformation is normally distributed into elastic and

plastic deformation.

• Elastic deformation: Metal returns to its original

dimension after tensile force is removed.

• Plastic deformation: The metal is deformed to such an

extent such that it cannot return to its original
dimension
 Elastic Deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
Elastic deformation
• Deformation of the material that is
recovered instantaneously when the applied
load is removed.
• Involve only stretching of chemical bond.
No chemical bond break down or planes
shear.
• Do not have any permanent deformation
Plastic deformation
• Deformation of the material that will NOT
recovered when the applied load is
removed.
• Involve chemical bond break down or
planes shear.
• Create permanent deformation
 Engineering Stress and Strain
F (Average uniaxial tensile force)
Engineering stress σ =
A0 (Original cross-sectional area)

Units of Stress are PSI or N/M2 (Pascals)

A0 Δl
1 PSI = 6.89 x 103 Pa
 Change in length
0 Engineering strain = ε =
Original length
0
A   0 
 
0 
Units of strain are in/in, m/m or dimensionless.
Figure 5.15
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)

• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).
 Poisons Ratio
.  (lateral ) y
Poisons ratio =   
 (longitudinal )  z
w  wo
v
l  lo
w0 w
0  metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40

Usually poisons ratio ranges from

0.25 to 0.4.

Example: Stainless steel 0.28

Copper 0.33
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
S (Shear force)
τ = Shear stress =
A (Area of shear force application)

• Shear stress, :
Ft F

Area, A Fs

Fs

 = Fs F Ft
Ao
 Amount of shear displacement (a)
Shear strain γ =
Distance over which shear acts (h)
Elastic Modulus G = τ / γ
 Tensile test

• Strength of materials can be tested by pulling the

metal to failure.

Load Cell

extensometer specimen

Specimen
Extensometer

Figure 5.18
Force data is obtained from Load cell
Strain data is obtained from Extensometer.
 Tensile Test (Cont)

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length Rectangulartens
ion test
specimen

Round tension Typical Stress-strain

test specimen curve

Figure 5.22
 Mechanical Properties
• Modulus of elasticity (E) : Stress and strain are
linearly related in elastic region. (Hooks law)

σ (Stress) Δσ
E= Strain E=
Δε
ε (Strain) Δσ

Δε
• Higher the bonding strength,
higher is the modulus of elasticity. Stress
Linear portion of the
stress strain curve
• Examples: Modulus of Elasticity of steel is 207 Gpa.
Modulus of Elasticity of Aluminum is 76Gpa

*E Strength Brittle
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Metals Graphite Composites
Ceramics Polymers /fibers
Alloys
Semicond
1200
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni C FRE(|| fibers)*
200 Tantalum <111>
Platinum Si crystal
E(GPa) 10 0
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
<100> Aramid fibers only

80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium,
40 Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Concrete Callister 7e.
GFRE* Composite data based on
20
109 Pa 10
G raphite
CFRE *
G FRE( fibers)*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
8
6
C FRE( fibers) * carbon (CFRE),
AFRE( fibers) *
4
Polyester aramid (AFRE), or
PET glass (GFRE)
PS
2 PC Epoxy only fibers.
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE
 Yield Strength

• Yield strength is strength at which

metal or alloy show significant
amount of plastic deformation.

• 0.2% offset yield strength is that

strength at which 0.2% plastic
deformation takes place.

• Construction line, starting at 0.2%

strain and parallel to elastic region
Figure 5.23
is drawn to fiend 0.2% offset yield
strength.
 Yield Strength, y

• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has

occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y = yield strength
y

engineering strain, 
p = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
20 00

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Steel (4140) qt

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
10 00
Yield strength,  y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
7 00
6 00 Cu (71500) cw
5 00 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
4 00
Steel (1020) cd
3 00

Hard to measure ,
Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
Steel (1020) hr
2 00
Ti (pure) a
¨ Room T values
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
dry
70 PC
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
humid
40 PVC
PP
30 H DPE

20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
 Ultimate tensile strength

• Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum

strength reached by the engineering stress strain curve.
• Necking starts after UTS is reached.
Al 2024-Tempered

S
Figure 5.24
T
R Necking Point
• More ductile the metal is, more E
is the necking before failure. S
S Al 2024-Annealed
Mpa
• Stress increases till failure. Drop
in stress strain curve is due to stress Strain
Stress strain curves of
calculation based on original area. Al 2024 With two different
heat treatments. Ductile
annealed sample necks more
 Ultimate Tensile Strength, TS

• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister 7e.

M= ultimate
y strength
engineering
stress

F = fracture
strength
Typical response of a metal
Neck – acts
as stress
strain concentrator
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
 Tensile Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cwa
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 ag
Al (6061) a
Ti (pure)
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET
40 PVC GFRE( fiber)
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE
20 Graphite
LDPE

10

wood ( fiber)

1
 Percent Elongation

• Percent elongation is a measure of ductility of a

material.
• It is the elongation of the metal before fracture
expressed as percentage of original length.
Final length – initial Length
% Elongation =
Initial Length

• Measured using a caliper fitting the fractured metal

together.
• Example:- Percent elongation of pure aluminum is 35%
For 7076-T6 aluminum alloy it is 11%
 Percent Reduction in Area

• Percent reduction area is also a measure of ductility.

• The diameter of fractured
end of specimen is measured
using caliper.

% Reduction Initial area – Final area

=
Area Initial area

• Percent reduction in area

in metals decreases in case
of presence of porosity.
Figure 5.14
Stress-strain curves of different metals
 -  Behavior vs. Temperature

• Results for
800
polycrystalline iron: -200C

Stress (MPa)
600
-100C
400

Adapted from Fig. 6.14, 200 25C

Callister 7e.

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain

• y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.

• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
 Toughness

• Energy to break a unit volume of material

• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, 
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
 Resilience, Ur

• Ability of a material to store energy

– Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur  y  y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
 True Stress – True Strain

• True stress and true strain are based upon

instantaneous cross-sectional area and length.

F
• True Stress = σt = Ai (instantaneous area)
i
d li A0
• True Strain = εt =   l0 ln  ln
Ai
0

• True stress is always greater than engineering stress.

 True Stress & Strain

Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress T  F Ai T  1   

T  lni o  T  ln1   
• True Strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.
 The Bend Test for Brittle Materials
• In many brittle materials, the normal tensile test cannot
easily be performed because of the presence of flaws at the
surface and easy to crack.
• Apply load at three points and causing bending, a tensile
force acts on the material opposite the midpoint and cause
fracture.
• Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture is used to
describes the material’s strength
 3FL
Flexural Strength  2
  bend
2 wh
Where,
F = fracture load
L = distance between the two outer points
W = width of the specimen
h = height of the specimen
L3 F
Flexural Modulus   Ebend
4 wh 3

Where
δ = deflection of the beam when a force F is applied
 Example:
The flexural strength of a composite material reinforced with glass
fibers is 45kPa and the flexural modulus is 18MPa. A sample,
which is 5cm wide, 3.7cm high and 20cm long is supported
between two rods 15cm apart. Determine the force required to
fracture the material and the deflection of the sample at fracture,
assuming that no plastic deformation occurs.
Solution:
w = 5cm, h = 3.7cm, L = 20cm
3FL
 bend  Ebend  18 10 Pa 
6 L3 F

(20) 3 (102675)
2wh 2 4wh 3
4(5)(3.7) 3 
3F (20)   0.0450cm
45000Pa  2
 0.4383F
2(5)(3.7)
F  102675N
 Hardness and Hardness Testing

• Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to

permanent (plastic) deformation.
• General procedure:
Press the indenter that
is harder than the metal
Into metal surface.

Withdraw the indenter

Measure hardness by
measuring depth or Rockwell hardness
width of indentation. tester
Figure 5.27
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
 Hardness: Measurement

• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-
100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = 1/8in ball, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psi) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Hardness Tests

Table 5.2
 Impact Test

• When a material is subjected to a sudden force or the

strain rate is extremely rapid, it behave more brittle
than is observed in the tensile test.

• An impact test or Izod test (often used for plastic

material) is often used to evaluate the brittleness of a
material under these condition.

• The energy needed to fracture a material is measured

by the area under the stress-strain curve. It is refer as
impact toughness.
 Impact testing (Cont…)
• Also used to find the temperature range for ductile to
brittle transition.

Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16

• Sinking of Titanic: Titanic was made up of steel which
has ductile brittle transition temperature 320C. On
the day of sinking, sea temperature was –20C which
made the the structure highly brittle and susceptible to
more damage.
 Loading Rate

• Increased loading rate... • Why? An increased rate

-- increases y and TS gives less time for
-- decreases %EL dislocations to move past
obstacles.

TS
y Lower toughness

TS
Higher toughess
y

 Design or Safety Factors

• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.

• Factor of safety, N

Often N is
y between
working  1.2 and 4
N
 Plastic Deformation in Single Crystals
• Plastic deformation of single crystal results in step
markings on surface slip bands.
• Atoms on specific crystallographic planes (slip planes)
slip to cause slip bands.

Slip bands

Figure 5.28
 Slip in Crystals

• Slip occurs in densely or close packed planes.

• Lower shear stress is required for slip to occur in
densely packed planes.
• If slip is restricted in close
planes, then less dense Close packed
plane
planes become operative.
• Less energy is required
to move atoms along
denser planes.

Non-close-packed
Figure 5.34 plane
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear
densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:  yield  o  k y d 1 / 2

 Effects of Grain Boundaries on Strength

• Grain boundaries stop dislocation movement and

hence strengthen the metals.
• Fine grain size is desirable, and hence metals are
produced with finer grains.

Figure 5.40 Figure 5.40 Figure 5.40

Stress-strain curve of single Slip bands in polycrystalline Dislocations piled up
and polycrystalline copper aluminum grains against grain boundaries
in stainless steel
 Hall Petch Equation

• Finer the grains, superior are the mechanical

properties (at room temperature).
 More isotropic properties
 Less resistant to corrosion and creep

Hall-Petch equation - Empirical

y = o + k / (d)1/2 y = Yield strength
d = average grain diameter

o and k are constants for a metal.

oMpa and k = 0.74 Mpam1/2 for mild
steel.
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
2.Effects of Plastic Deformation

• Plastic deformation results in

shearing of grains relative to each other.
• The grains elongate in rolling direction.
• Dislocations get rearranged.
Grain structure at
different regions of
cartridge brass
rolled into a wedge
Before Cold work

After Cold work

 Effect of Cold Work on Tensile Strength

• Number of dislocations are increased by cold work.

• Dislocation movements are hindered by both grain
boundaries and other dislocations Strain Hardening

1018-Cold Rolled

1018-Annealed

Stress-Strain curves of 1018 steel

Figure 5.45
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister 7e.
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and
Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and
Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
3.Solid Solution Strengthening

• Addition of one or more metals can increase the

strength of metals.
• Solute atoms, on case of substitutional solid
solution, create stress fields around themselves
and hinder the dislocation movement.
• Distortion of lattice and clustering of like atoms
also impede dislocation movement.
• Example: Solid solution of 70 wt % Cu & 30 wt
% Zn (cartridge brass) has tensile strength of 500
MPa. Tensile strength of unalloyed copper is 330
MPa
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Precipitation Strengthening

• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.

Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: y ~
S
 Fatigue of Metals

• Metals often fail at much lower stress at cyclic loading

compared to static loading.
• Crack nucleates at region of stress concentration and
propagates due to cyclic loading.
• Failure occurs when
cross sectional area
of the metal too small
to withstand applied
Fracture started here
load.
Figure 6.19
Fatigue fractured
surface of keyed
shaft Final rupture
th
 Fatigues Testing

• Alternating compression and tension load is applied on

metal piece tapered towards center.

Figure 6.21

Figure 6.20

• Stress to cause failure S

and number of cycles
required N are plotted
to form SN curve.
Figure 6.23
 Cyclic Stresses

• Different types of stress cycles are possible (axial,

torsional and flexural).

Figure 6.24

 max   min  max   min

Stress amplitude =  a 
Mean stress =  m  2
2

Stress range =  r   max   min  min

Stress range = R 
 max
 Fatigue

specimen compression on top

motor counter
bearing bearing

flex coupling
tension on bottom


max
• Stress varies with time. m
S
-- key parameters are S (σmax- σm), σ max,
min time
and frequency

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though max < c (normally
two third ).
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
 Fatigue Design Parameters

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
unsafe steel (typ.)
--no fatigue if S < Sfat
Sfat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, no
fatigue limit, number of S = stress amplitude
case for
cycles to failure is unsafe Al (typ.)
depend on the
fatigue strength. safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister 7e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
 Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength

• Stress concentration: Fatigue strength is reduced by

stress concentration.

• Surface roughness: Smoother surface increases the

fatigue strength.

• Surface condition: Surface treatments like carburizing

and nitriding increases fatigue life.

• Environment: Chemically reactive environment, which

might result in corrosion, decreases fatigue life.
 Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate

• Notched specimen used.

• Cyclic fatigue action is generated.
• Crack length is measured by change in potential
produced by crack opening.

Figure 6.27

th
 Creep in Metals

• Creep is progressive deformation
• under constant stress.
• Important in high temperature
• applications. 0 t
• Primary creep: creep rate
decreases with time due
to strain hardening.
• Secondary creep: Creep
rate is constant due to
simultaneous strain hard-
ening and recovery process.
• Tertiary creep: Creep rate
increases with time leading
to necking and fracture.
Figure 6.30
 Creep Test

• Creep test determines the effect of temperature and

stress on creep rate.
• Metals are tested at constant stress at different
temperature & constant temperature with different
stress.
High temperature
or stress

Medium temperature Figure 6.33

or stress
Low temperature Creep strength: Stress to produce
or stress Minimum creep rate of 10-5%/h
At a given temperature.
Figure 6.32
 Creep Test (Cont..)

• Creep rupture test is same as creep test but aimed at

failing the specimen.
• Plotted as log stress versus log rupture time.
• Time for stress rupture decreases with increased
stress and temperature.
 Recent Advances: Strength + Ductility

• Coarse grained – low strength, high ductility

• Nanocrystalline – High strength, low ductility (because
of failure due to shear bands).
• Ductile nanocrystalline copper : Can be produced by
 Cold rolling at liquid nitrogen temperature
 Additional cooling after each pass
 Controlled annealing

• Cold rolling creates dislocations

and cooling stops recovery
• 25 % microcrystalline grains
in a matrix of nanograins.
 ENGINEERING ALLOYS
Metal Alloys

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
microstructure:
T(°C) ferrite, graphite
1600 cementite

1400 L
+L
1200  1148°C L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

+Fe3C
+

800 727°C Fe3C



ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
C , wt% C
 Steels

Low Alloy High Alloy

low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
 Low Alloy Steels
• Limitations of plain carbon steels:
– Cannot be strengthened beyond 690 MPa without
loosing ductility and impact strength.
– Not deep hardenable.
– Low corrosion resistance
– Rapid quenching leads to crack and distortion.
– Poor impact resistance at low temperature.

• Alloy steels: Up to 50% alloying elements like

manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and
tungsten.
 Classification of Alloy Steels
• Designation: Four to five digit number to represent a steel.
– First two numbers refer to the major alloying elements and the last two
or three numbers refer to the % of carbon
 Effects of Alloying Element on Eutectoid
Temperature
• Mn and Ni lower
eutectoid temperature.
• They act as austenite
stabilizing element.
• Tungsten, molybdenum
and titanium raise eutectic
temperature.
• They are called ferrite
stabilizing elements.
Mechanical Properties of Low Alloy Steels
 Aluminum Alloys
• Precipitation Strengthening : Creates fine
dispersion of precipitated particles in the metal
and hinder dislocation movement.
• Basic steps :
– Solution heat treatment: Alloy sample heated
to a temperature between solvus and solidus
and soaked at that temperature.
– Quenching: Sample then quenched to room
temperature in water (very fast cooling).
– Aging: Solutionized and quenched sample is
then aged to form finely dispersed particles.
 Decomposition Products Created by Aging

• Super saturated solid

solution is in unstable
condition.
• Alloy tends to seek a lower
energy state by
decomposing into
metastable or equilibrium
phase.
• Supersaturated solid
solution as highest energy
state.
• Equilibrium precipitate has
lowest energy state.
 Effects of Aging on Strength

• Aging curve: Plot of

strength or hardness
versus aging time.
• As aging time increases
alloy becomes stronger
harder and less ductile.
• Overaging decreases
strength and hardness.
 General Properties of Aluminum
• Low density, corrosion resistance.
• High alloy strength (about 690 MPa)
• Nontoxic and good electrical properties.
Sodium
• Production: Aluminum +
Hot
Aluminate
Ore (Bauxite) NaOH

• Aluminum hydroxide is
precipitated from aluminum
solution.
• Aluminum hydroxide is
thickened and calcined to
Al2O3 which is dissolve in
cryolite and electrolyzed.
• Metallic aluminum sinks to bottom and is tapped out.
 Copper Alloys
• General properties of Copper: Good electrical and thermal
conduction, ease of fabrication, corrosion resistance,
medium strength.
• Production of copper:
– Copper sulfide concentrates are melted.
– Copper sulfide is converted to blister copper by
blowing air through matte.
– Impurities in blister copper removed as slag in refining
furnace tough pitch copper.
– Tough pitch copper is further refined electrolytically.
• Numbers C10100 to C79900 designate wrought alloys.
• Numbers C80000 to C99900 designate casting alloys.
 Unalloyed Copper

• Electrolytic tough pitch copper is least expensive and used in

production of wire, rod, and strip.
• Has 0.04% oxygen.
Heated
• Cu2O + H2 4000C2Cu + H2O
• H2O causes inner holes and
blisters.
• Copper cast in controlled
reducing atmosphere
Figure 9.51
Oxygen free high conductive
Copper
(Alloy C10200)
 Copper Zinc Alloys
• Copper forms substitutional solid solution with Zn till 35% Zn.
• Cartridge brass 70% Cu & 30% Zn single phase
• Muntz brass 60% Cu & 40% Zn two phase.

Alpha

Beta

Figure 9.53
• Zinc (0.5 to 3%) is always added to copper to increase
machinability.
 Other Copper Alloys
• Copper-Tin Bronzes: 1 to 10% tin with Cu to form solid
solution strengthened alloys.
 Stronger and less corrosive than Cu-Zn bronzes.
 Up to 16% Sn is added to alloys that are used for
high strength bearings.
• Copper beryllium alloys: 0.6 to 2% Be and 0.2 – 2.5 %
Cobalt with copper.
 Can be heat treated and cold worked to produce
very strong (1463 MPa) bronzes.
 Excellent corrosion resistance and fatigue
properties.
 Used in springs, diaphragms, valves etc.
 Stainless Steel

• Excellent corrosion
resistance in stainless
steel is due to high (at
least 12%) Chromium
forming chromium
oxide on surface.
• Three types:
– Ferritic Stainless Steel
– Austenitic Stainless Steel
– Martensitic Stainless
Steel
 Ferritic Stainless Steel

 12-30% Cr
 Structure is mainly ferritic (BCC α ).
 Cr extends α region and suppresses γ
region forming γ loop.
 Low cost high strength (517 MPa) and
hence used in construction materials.
 Martensitic Stainless Steel
• 12 – 17% Cr and 0.15 – 1% C.
• Martensite formed from quenching from austenite
region.
• Poor corrosion resistance.
• Heat treatment: Same as plain carbon steel.
• Tensile strength : 517 MPa to 1966 MPa.
• Used for machine parts, pumps, bearings, and
valve parts.
• When carbon content is greater than 1%, α loop is
enlarged.
 Austenitic Stainless Steel
• Iron-Chromium (16-25%) – Nickel (7-20%)
ternary alloy.
• Austenitic structure (FCC γ ) remains austenitic at
all temperature due to nickel.
• Better corrosion resistance than other steels.
• Tensile strength 559-759 MPa.
• Used for chemical equipment, pressure vessels
etc.
• Alloying element, columbium, prevents
intergranular corrosion if the alloy is to be used
for welding.
 Cast Iron
• General Properties: Contains 2-4% Carbon
and 1-3% Si.
• Easily melted, very fluid, low shrinkage,
easily machinable.
• Low impact resistance and ductility.
• Types of Cast Iron:
 White cast iron
 Gray cast iron
 Malleable cast iron
 Ductile cast iron
 White Cast Iron

• Much of Carbon forms Iron

Carbide instead of graphite
Iron Carbide Pearlite
up on solidification.
• Fractured surface appears
white and crystalline.
• Low carbon (2.5 – 3%) and
silicon (0.5 – 1.5%) content.
• Excellent wear resistance.

Figure 9.59
 Gray Cast Iron

• Carbon exceeds the amount that can dissolve in austenite and

precipitate as graphite flakes.
• Fractured surface appears gray.
• Excellent machinability, hardness and wear resistance, and
vibration damping capacity.
• 2.5 – 4% C and 1 – 3% Si (Promotes formation of graphite).

Graphite
Flakes

Figure 9.60 Figure 9.61

 Ductile Cast iron

• Has processing advantages of cast iron and engineering

advantages of steel.
• Good fluidity, castability, machinability, and wear resistance.
• High strength, toughness, ductility and hardenability (due to
spherical nodules of graphite).
• 3-4% C and 1.8 – 2.8 % Si and low impurities.
• Bull’s eye type microstructure.

Figure 9.63
 Malleable Cast Iron
• 2-2.6 % C and 1.1 – 1.6% Si.
• White cast iron is heated in malleablizing furnace to
dislocate carbide into graphite.
• Irregular nodules of graphite are formed.
• Good castability, machinability, moderate strength,
toughness and uniformity.

Figure 9.65
 Heat Treatment

• Heat treatment of white irons to produce

malleable irons are
 Graphitization: Castings heated above the eutectoid
temperature (9400C) and held for 3 to 20h depending on the
composition and structure.
white iron graphite and austenite.
 Cooling :
• Ferritic malleable iron: Fast cooled from 740-7600C and then
slowly cooled.
• Pearlitic malleable iron: Slowly cooled up to 8700C and then air
cooled.
• Tempered martensitic malleable iron: Casting cooled in furnace
to a quenching temperature and homogenized and then
quenched in agitated oil.
 Magnesium Alloy

 Low density metal, high cost, low castability, low

strength, poor creep, fatigue and wear resistance.
 Two types: wrought alloys (sheet, plate, extrusion)
and casting alloys (casting).
 Designated by two capital letters and two or three
numbers.
 First two letters indicate two major alloying
elements.
 The numbers indicate wt% of alloying elements.
 Structure and Properties of Magnesium
Alloys
• Limited cold working due to HCP structure.
• Usually hot worked.
• Al and Zn are added to increase strength.
• Alloying with rare earth elements (cerium) produces rigid
boundary network.
• Tensile strength 179 – 310 MPa.
• Elongation – 2 to 11%
 Titanium Alloys
• Low density and high strength
• Expensive – used for aircraft applications.
• Easily formed, outstanding corrosion resistance
• Special technique needed to work with metal.
• HCP at room temperature. Transforms to BCC at 8830C.
• Al and O increase transformation temperature.
• Tensile strength – 662 to 862 MPa
• Low elastic modulus, highly biocompatible
• Pure Ti is used in low strength applications
• Alpha-beta alloys of Ti like Ti-6Al-4V (F1472) are strengthened by
solution heat treatment.
• Poor wear resistance and notch sensitivity
• Beta alloys have low elastic modulus
• Ion implantation improves wear resistance
 Nickel Alloys
• Expensive, good corrosion resistance and high
formability.
• Commercial Nickel and Monel alloys: good weldability,
electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance.
• Nickel + 32% Cu Monel alloy (strengthens nickel).
• Nickel based super alloys: High temperature creep
resistance and oxidizing resistance for gas turbine parts.
• 50 -60 % Ni + 15-20% Cr + 15-20% Co + 1-4% Al + 2-
4% Ti.
• 3 phases – Gamma austenite, gamma prime, carbide
particles.
 Intermetallics

• Unique combination of properties

• Examples: Nickel aluminide
High temperature
• Iron aluminide applications
• Titanium aluminide
• Low density, good high temperature strength, less
corrosion but brittle.
• 0.1 % Boron and 6-9 % Cr added to reduce embrittlement
and to increase ductility.
• Applications : Jet engine, pistons, furnace parts, magnetic
applications (Fe3Si) and electronic applications (MoSi2)
 Amorphous Metals
• Atoms arranged in random manner in metals under special
circumstances
• Produced by rapid quenching (10 5 K/s) – No time to form
crystals.
• Till now only small pieces could be produced
• No dislocation activity : Very hard, perfectly plastic, high
dimensional accuracy (no shrinkage)
• Applications:
 surgical knives
 Golf clubs