Mathematics in the

Modern World
Chapter 3
Inductive Reasoning

The process of reaching a

general conclusion by
examining specific
examples. A conclusion
based on inductive
reasoning is called
conjecture. A conjecture
may or may not be correct.
Example: Use Inductive
Reasoning to Make a
Conjecture
Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum
by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure
for several different numbers. Use
inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship
between the size of the resulting
number and the size of the original
number.
 SOLUTION
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as
our original number produces a result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a result of 400.
In each of these cases the resulting number is four time the original number. We
conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times
the original number.
 Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,
In units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
Example: Use Use the data in the above table and
Inductive inductive reasoning to answer each of
the following questions:
Reasoning to
a.If a pendulum has a length of 49
Solve an units, what is its period?
Application b.If the length of a pendulum is
quadrupled, what happens to its
period?
 SOLUTION
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the
square root of its length. Thus, we conjecture that a
pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7
heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a
period twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A
pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is
twice of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears
that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its
period.
Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning is the

process of reaching a
conclusion by applying
general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
 Example
Solution

Determine whether each of the following

arguments is an example of inductive a. This argument reaches a conclusion based
reasoning or deductive reasoning. on specific examples, so it is an example
of inductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 year, a tree has
produced plums every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce plums, so
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case
this year the tree will produce plums.
of a general assumption, this argument is
b. All home improvements cost more than the
an example of deductive reasoning.
estimate. The contractor estimated that my
home improvement will cost $35, 000.
Thus, my home improvement will cost
more than $35, 000.
Example: Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each four neighbors, Sean, Maria Sarah, and Brian has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of
each neighbor.
1.Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.
2.Sarah, who is the last to get home from work is not an
editor.
3.The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4.The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution From Column 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this
condition. There are now Xs for three of the four
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the occupations on Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the
dentist. In the following chart write XI (which chef. Place a / in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of
stand for “ruled out by clue I”) in the Banker in
the other three people can be chef. Write X3 for these
the Dentist of Maria’s row.
conditions. There are now Xs for three to four occupations in
Editor Banker Chef Dentist Mara’s row: therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert / to
Sean indicate that Maria is the editor and write X3 twice to
Maria XI XI indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is editor.
Sarah Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Brian Sean X3 X3
Maria / XI X3 XI
From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
(Ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of Brian X3 X3
Sarah’s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this
is not the last to get home, and we know from clue condition. See the following table. Since there three
2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Xs in the banker column, Sean must be the banker.
Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 ion the Banker Place a / in that box. Thus, Sean cannot be the
column of Sarah’s row. dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there 3 Xs in the
Editor Banker Chef Dentist Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a / in
Sean that box.
Maria XI XI Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sarah X2 X2 Sean X3 / X3 X4
Brian Maria / XI X3 XI
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 /
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement
provided it is true in all cases. If
you can find one case in which
a statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the
statement is false statement.
 Examples: Find a Counterexample
Verify that each of the following is a false statement by finding a counterexample.

|𝑥|> 0 𝑥 >𝑥
2
√ 𝑥 2
= 𝑥

Let x=0. Then . For x=1 we have Consider x=-3. Then

Because 0 is not Since 1 is not greater Since 3 is not equal
greater than 0, we than 1, we have to -3, we have found
have found a found a a counterexample.
counterexample. counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
Thus “for all Thus “for all numbers x, ” is a false
numbers x, ” is a x, ” is a false statement.
false statement. statement.
Sequences
A sequence is an ordered list of
numbers. Each number in a sequence
is called term of the sequence. The
notation an is used to designate the nth
term of a sequence. A formula that can
be used to generate all the terms of a
sequence is called an nth-term formula.
Example: Find the nth Formula

Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures
continues.
a. What is the nth term formula for the number of the tiles in the nth figure
of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Difference Table

A difference table shows the

differences between successive
terms of a sequence, and in
some cases, it can be used to
predict the next term in a
sequence.
Example: Predict the Next nth Term of a Sequence
Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

Solution: The third difference, shown in row 3 are all same constant 6. Extending row 3 so
that it includes an additional 6 enables us to predict that the next difference will be 36. Adding
36 to the first difference 89 gives us the next difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207
yields 332. Using the method extending the difference table, we predict 332 is the next term in
the sequence.
Fibonacci Sequence.

Let Fn represent the nth

Fibonacci number. Then the
terms in the Fibonacci
sequence are given by the
recursive definition:
Example: Find a Fibonacci Number
Use the Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eighth Fibonacci numbers.

Solution:
The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The seventh Fibonacci number is
the sum of the two previous number. Thus,

=8+5
= 13
The eighth Fibonacci number is

= 13 + 8
=21
 M AT H E M AT I C S C L S S

Polya’s Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy

Understand Devise a Carry out Review the

the problem plan. the plan. solution.
Example: Apply Polya’s Strategy
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams exactly three times. How many
league games will be played?

Understand Devise a plan. Try the strategy of Carry out the Plan. Review the solution. We could check our
the Problem. working a similar but simpler Using the process work by making a diagram that includes all
There are 10 problem. Consider a league with only developed above, we 10 teams represented by dots labeled A,
teams in the four teams (denoted A, B, C, D) in see that 10 teams B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Because this
which each team play each of the
league, and can play each other diagram would be somewhat complicated,
other teams only once. Since each of
each team once in a total of let’s ty the method of making an organized
the four teams will play a game
plays exactly games. Since each list. The figure below shows an organized
against each of the other three, we
three games might conclude that this would result team plays each list.in which notation BC represents a
against each 4*3= 12 games. However, the opponent exactly game between B and C. The notation CB
other teams. diagram shows only six-line three times, the total is not shown because it also represents
The problem is segments. It appears that our number of games is game between team B and C. This list
to determine procedure counted each game twice. 45 * 3= 135. shows 45 games a re required for each
the total For instance, when team A plays team to play each of the other teams once.
number of team B, team B also plays team A. AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ BC BD BE
games that will To produce the correct result, we BF BG BH BI BJ CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ
be played. must divide our previous result, 12
DE DF DG DH DI DJ EF EG EH EI EJ FG
by 2. Hence our four teams can play
FH FI FJ GH GI GJ HI HJ IJ
each other in 4 x 32=6 games.
Graphs

Bar graphs, circle graphs,

and broken-line graphs
are often used to display
data in a visual format.
Example: Use Graphs to Solve Problems

Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5

8.5 7.89 7.93 7.96 8.13 8.17 29 5.4%
7.5 28.5
7.5 7.18
28
6.5
27.5 15.6% 23.3%
Ticket Prices (in dollar)

5.5 27
4.5 26.5
3.5 26 24.4%
25.5 31.1%
2.5
25
1.5 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
0.5 Men Women
13-17 18-24 25-34 35-54 55+

a.Use Figure 3.3 to determine the minimum average US movie

theatre ticket price for the years from 2008 to 2014.
b.Use figure 3.4 to estimate the median age at which women
married for the first time in 2011. Round to the nearest half of a
year.
c.Use figure 3.5 to estimate number of US Facebook user in the age
group. Round to the nearest hundred thousand.
Solution:
a. The minimum of the average ticket prices is displayed by the height of the
shortest vertical bar in figure 3.3. Thus, the minimum average US movie theatre
ticket price for the years from 2008 to 2014 was $7.18.
b. To estimate the median age at which women married for the first time in 2011,
locate on the horizontal axis of Figure 3.4 and then move directly upward to a
point on the green broken-line graph. The height of this point represents the
median age at first marriage for women in 2011, and it can be estimated by
moving horizontally to the vertical axis on the left. Thus, the median age at the first
marriage for women in 2011 was 26.5 years, rounded to the nearest half of a year.
c. Figure 3.5 indicates that 23.3% of the 180 000 000 US Facebook users were in
the 18-24 age group.
0.233*180 000 000 = 41 940 000
Thus, rounded off to the nearest hundred thousand, the number of US Facebook
users in this age group was 41 900 000 in January 2014.