An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

• Mapping involves determining the

geographic location of features on the earth,
transforming these locations into positions
on the flat map through the use of Map
Projection, and graphically symbolizing
these features. Geographic locations are
specified by geographic co-ordinates called
Latitude and longitudes. To establish a
system of geographic coordinates for the
earth, we must first know its shape and size.
• The earth is very smooth geometrical figure. To
us earth looks like a rugged surface with it high
mountains, deep valley and ocean trenches.
However, from the satellite images these
features are barely noticeable to us. Both the
highest peak Mount Everest and the deepest
trench Mariana trench are the extreme relief
features. But the earths’ average altitude and
depth are much less from these extremes. In
this context it is quite safe to say that when the
earth is reduced to a small ball these
irregularities will altogether disappear.
•Spherical Earth: for the last about 2000 years
most of the educated people knew that the earth
is spherical in shape. This understanding was the
results of the teachings of Pythagoras (6th century
B.C.) that human must live on a body of the
“perfect shape” – a perfect sphere. More
convincing were the arguments of Aristotle
around 4th century B.C. in favour of spherical
earth.
• An other very important event with respect to
the measurement of the dimension of the earth.
It was, for the first time, done by a Greek scholar
Eratosthenes around 250 B.C.
• He successfully calculated the circumference of
the earth. However, later on it became clear
that the earth is not a perfect sphere, but
rather slightly ellipsoidal in shape.
•Ellipsoidal Earth: as late as 1600 A.D. the
earth was thought to be a perfect spherical in
shape. The change came around 1670, when
Isaac Newton proposed that as a result of his
theory of gravity, there would be a slight
bulging of the earth at the equator due to the
greater centrifugal force generated by the
earths’ rotation.
• This equator bulging would produce a slight
flattening at the poles. It was predicted by
Newton that 1/300th of the equatorial radius.
Measurements made by the expeditions sent
to Ecuador and Finland in 1735 to 1743
confirmed Newtons’ prediction.
• From 1800 to the present, at least 20
determinations of the earths’ radii and
flattening have been made from
measurements taken at widely different
locations. Values for 11 different ellipsoids
used as the basis in various parts of the world.
 North Pole

Polar Axis (b)

Equator
Equatorial axis (a)
 Official Ellipsoids (after Robinson Et al. 1995:
45)

Name Date Radius a Radius b Polar

meters meters Flattening
WGS 84 1984 6,378,137 6,356,752.3 1/298.257
WGS 72 1972 6,378,135 6,356,750.5 1/298.26
Australian 1965 6.378,160 6,356,774.7 1/298.25
Krasovsky 1940 6,378,245 6,356,863 1/298.3
Internatio 1924 6,378,388 6,356,911.9 1/297
Clarke 1880 6,378,249.1 6,356,514.9 1/293.46
Clarke 1866 6,378,206.4 6,356,583.8 1/294.98
Bessel 1841 6,378,397.2 6,356,079.0 1/299.15
Airy 1830 6,378, 563.4 6,356,256.9 1/299.32
Everest 1830 6,377,276.3 6,356,075.4 1/300.8
• Slight differences observed in the in the values
of of length of radii and polar flattening in the
table are the result of varying accuracy in the
measurements made, and of slight variations in
curvature from continent to continent due to
irregularities in the earths’ gravity field.
• The World Geodetic System (WGS 72 & 84),
determined from satellite orbital data, are
considered more accurate than the earlier
ground measurements determinations, but not
give the best fit for the particular parts of the
earth.
The Clarke 1866 ellipsoid, based on the
measurements taken in Europe, India, Peru,
Russia, and south Africa, is of special interest in
the US, because it had been used for mapping
in the US until recently. Now the North
American cartographers are rapidly switching
to WGS 84 ellipsoid, which is intended to be
global standard.
• Geoidal Earth: An even more faithful figure of
the earth, called Geoid (meaning earth like),
deviates ever so slightly from the ellipsoid in an
irregular manner. The geoid is a three
dimensional shape that would be approximated
by mean sea level in the oceans and the surface
of a series of hypothetical sea level canals criss-
crossing the continents. In more technical
terms, it is a sea level equipotential surface –
the surface on which gravity is everywhere
equal to its strength at mean sea level.
• Why there are differences between geoid and
ellipsoid?
• The earth is composed of differential geological
composition, including mountains, oceans, basins and
other vertical irregularities.
• Otherwise if the earth would have been a featureless
plain without oceans then there would have been no
differences between the geoid and ellipsoid. Due to
variation in rock density and topographic relief, the
geoid surface deviate from the ellipsoid by up to 300
feet or 100 meter in certain locations.
• The minute undulation on the geoid are very clear in
the contour map of its surface and that of the WGS 84
ellipsoid. These lines of equal deviation were modelled
from millions of gravity observations taken throughout
the world.
• On this map you can easily note that the hills
and valley on the geoid do not correspond with
continents and oceans on the land surface. The
highest point on the geoid can be located in
New Guinea and that is 75 meters above the
ellipsoid and the lowest point is in the tip of
southern India, which is 104 meter below the
ellipsoid value. The most detailed geodal model
has been constructed for the united states and
surrounding areas. it is showing deviation
relative to the WGS 84 ellipsoids. This map was
created by combining more than one million
observations with raster digital elevation data.
A number of significant differences can be
easily seen on this map between the geoid and
ellipsoids.
• What is the significance of Sphere, Ellipsoid and
Geoid for cartographers?
• Cartographic use of the Sphere, Ellipsoid and
Geoid: Cartographers are using these three
approximations to the earths’ true shape in
different ways. The authalic sphere is the
reference surface for small-scale maps of
countries, continents and large areas.
• This is because of the fact that the difference
between sphere and ellipsoid is negligible
when mapping large areas in a in a general
manner on page-size maps. There is also a
significant increase in the complexity of map
projection equations for the ellipsoid. In
addition the spherical spheroidal equations for
a particular map projection give essentially the
same results for small-scale maps.
• With large-scale maps, however, it is a different
story. In the large-scale maps the difference
between locations on the spherical and
ellipsoidal approximations can be significant,
therefore, there is a need to take the earth
oblateness into account. Otherwise, distances,
directions and areas measured on these
detailed maps would be incorrect at particular
locations. Therefore cartographers usually use
ellipsoid as the reference surface for these
large-scale maps.
• The geoid is the reference surface for ground
surveyed horizontal and vertical positions.
These positions are adjusted to the ellipsoid
surface, since the irregularities on the geoid
would make map projection and other
mathematical computations extremely
complex.
• On the other hand elevations are determined
relative to the mean sea level geoid.
• Geographical Coordinates: The geographical
coordinate system (latitude and longitude) can be
traced back to the 2nd century B.C. The famous
astronomer/geographer Hipparchus of Rodes was
the person who introduced the geographical
coordinates for the first time. It is the primary
location system of the earth surface. It has always
been used in cartography for location and
surveying. It was devised to adopt a unique
system of location for the earth features.
• The north south axis of earth rotation are the
main reference point for starting this location
system. Specifying any location on the earth
surface requires determining latitude, the north
south angular distance from the equator, and
longitude, the east west angular distance from
the prime meridian. All points on the earth
having the same latitude from a line called a
parallel; all points of the same longitude from a
meridian line.
• Latitude north south 90˚ each starting from
equator. Relationship with the --------------------.
• Authalic latitude: for small scale maps based on
the spherical earth authalic latitude is usually
used. It can be defined as the angle formed by a
pair of lines extending from the equator to the
centre of the earth and then from the centre to
our required position. It ranges from pole to pole
from 90˚N to 90˚S or from + 90˚ to - 90˚ when
digital databases and map projection equations.
It is normally given in degrees, minutes, and
seconds, using the sexagesimal (60) number
system developed by ancient Babylonian
mathematicians. Computer calculation system
often require the decimal degree system, with
which, 45˚ 30’ N is expressed as 45.5˚.
• The north south distance of the sphere
between each degree of authalic latitude is
identical, and only depends on the
circumference of the sphere. For the WGS 84
authalic sphere of circumference 40,030.2 km.
(24875 miles), the distance between each
degree of latitude is 111.20 km (69.11 mile).
Whereas, on the Clark 1866 authalic sphere, the
circumference is also 40,030.2 km, meaning
that these two and most other authalic spheres
can be used interchangeably for small-scale
mapping.
• Geodetic Latitude: latitude on the ellipsoid is
called Geodetic latitude. It is defined as the
angle formed by a line from the equator toward
the centre of the earth, and a second line
perpendicular to the ellipsoid surface at ones’
location.
• The north south difference between degrees of
geodetic latitude is nearly the same with slight
variation.
• Longitude: Longitudes are our east and west
positions on the earth surface, is Geodetic
latitude
• associated with an infinite set of meridians,
arranged perpendicularly to the parallels.
Unlike the equator in the latitude system no
meridian has the natural bases for being the
starting line from which to count east west
positions. The choice of the starting line called
the prime meridian has always been a matter of
international importance. In 1884 it was
universally agreed to adopt the Royal
Greenwich observatory as a starting point of
prime meridian at an international meridian
conference in Washington D.C.
• The universal choice of Greenwich as a prime
meridian established the (0˚ 0˚) point of origin of
the geographical coordinate system as being a
point in the Gulf of Guinea. It also became the
starting point for the international time zones.
The position of the 180˚ meridian in the pacific
ocean opposite the prime meridian provides a
convenient place for the international date line.
This meridian has not been followed as such but
the actual line is zigzag to avoid the division of
small islands into different zones of the day.
Actually longitude is the angle formed by a line from
the intersection of the prime meridian and the
equator to the centre of the earth and then back to
the intersection of the equator and the local meridian
passing through the position. Longitudes ranges from
180˚ W and 180˚ E of the prime meridian, from - 180˚
to + 180˚ for the digital database and map projection
computations.
• Length of a Degree of Longitude: it can be easily seen
on the globe that the meridians converge on the
poles. As a result, the east west distance along a
parallel between two meridians one degree apart
becomes progressively less as the pole is approached.
The network of parallels and meridians on a plane
sheet of paper is known as graticule.
 Properties of the Graticule: the imaginary
network of parallels and meridians on the earth
is called the Graticule as is their projection onto
a flat map. The graticule has certain geomatric
properties, some of which cartographers try to
preserve when making a map projection for
part or all of the earth. These properties deals
with distance, direction, and area. All these
properties are discussed assuming the earth to
be spherical. Later in map projection these
properties are also discussed with reference to
the qualities and shortcomings of the individual
map projections.
• Distance on the Sphere and the Great Circle: the
shortest distance between two points is usually
a straight line. However, on the curving three
dimensional spherical surface it is obviously
impossible to follow such a straight line.
Therefore, the shortest straight line course over
the surface between any two points on a sphere
is the arc on the surface directly above the true
straight line.
This arc is formed by the intersection of the
spherical surface with the plane passing
through the two points and the centre of the
earth. The circle established by the intersection
of such a plane with the surface divides the
earth into hemisphere and is called a great
circle.
• The equator is the only complete great circle in
the graticule. Since all the meridians are one
half a great circle in length, pairs of meridians
also make up a great circles. All parallels other
than the equator are small circles.
• Direction: directions on the earth are entirely
arbitrary. Since a spherical surface has no
edges, beginning, or end. By convention north
south is defined as directions along any
meridian and east west is defined along any
parallel. Because of the arrangement of the
graticule, these two directions are always
perpendicular except at the poles. The
direction determined by the orientation of
the graticule are called geographic or true
directions as distinguished from two other
kinds of directions such as magnetic and grid.
• The needle of the compass align itself towards the
magnetic field of the earth and is not always points
towards the pole.
• The magnetic pole changes its position slowly with
the passage of time. Currently it is located at
approximately (78˚N and 103˚W) about 800 miles
(1300 km) south of the geographical pole.
• The direction of the line on the earth (or drawn on
the map as the case may be) is called many things:
bearing, course, heading flight line, or azimuth.
Their meanings are essentially the same, differing
largely in the context it is used. Two direction
specifications are of special importance in
cartography are true azimuth and constant azimuth.
• True Azimuth: As it is apparent from observing
the globe, directions on the earth, established by
the graticules, are likely to change constantly as
we move along the arc of the great circle. Only
along a meridian, or along the equator does
direction remains constant.
• Arcs of great circles are the shortest course
between points, movement along them is of
major commercial importance. Therefore,
cartographers construct special map projections
which maintain these directional relations as
much as possible.
• Constant Azimuth: A constant azimuth (also
called a rhumb line or loxodrome) is a line that
intersects each meridian at the same angle. All
meridians have a constant azimuth of 0˚
(North) or 180˚ (South), depending on the
direction of travel. The equator and all other
parallels have constant azimuth of 90˚ (east) or
270˚ (west).
• Area: the surface area of Square is bounded by
pairs of parallels and meridians on the sphere,
varies on predictable manner. Looking at the
globe we see that all quadrilaterals in an east-
west band bound by two parallels, such as 30˚
and 40˚ north and equally spaced meridians
have the same surface area. It is also clear from
the globe that the areas of quadrilaterals in
bands of equal width, such as 0˚-10˚N, 10˚ to
20˚N, and so on. Thus there is a systematic
decrease in the area of the quadrilaterals
according to various location on the globe.
• Determination of Geodetic Position: Maps
showing individual earth features cannot be
made without knowing the latitude, longitude,
and often the elevation of depth of each.
Before mapping can begin, a network of
accurately measured geodetic control points
must be defined on the ground. Geodetic
control points influence the accuracy of all
further mapping in their vicinity. Consequently
these are the fixed starting points which
surveyors, photogrammetrists, and others use
to determine the two or three dimensional
position of the natural and cultural features
that appear on the map.
• Determination of Geodetic Latitude and
Longitude:
Surveyors can use many methods for
the determination of geodetic latitude. The
oldest method and the one still wisely used is to
observe the altitude (angle above the horizon)
of Polaris, the North Star. This is an ancient
method and its popularity lies in the one-to-one
relationship between altitude angle and latitude
– that is the altitude angle equals the geodetic
latitude.
• This method can be extended to the sun, by
measuring the suns’ altitude at noon, when it
is highest in the sky. If the sun was directly
above the equator, geodetic latitude would
simply equal 90˚ minus the noon altitude.
However, this only occurs only in spring and
fall equinoxes. On all other days the suns’
declination must be taken into account by
using the equation, i.e. 90˚ - altitude +
declination. Solar declination is the latitude at
which the sun is directly overhead on a
particular day.
• Determination of longitude: it is basically a time
difference problem. Since the earth revolves 360˚ of
longitude every 24 hours, or 15˚ per hour. That is an
easy calculation and we have to know the time at
Greenwich.
• Horizontal Control Networks: to maintain accuracy in
the ground survey every country has a network of
points where the geodetic latitude and longitudes are
precisely known. For example there are more than
200,000 such points in the united states of America.
These points are generally spaced from three to
eight kilometres in the urban areas, and three to five
times apart in the rural and mountainous areas. The
physical location of each control point is also marked.
These points also vary in accuracy.
• Vertical Control: A network of vertical control
points with latitude, longitude, and elevation
are marked on the ground after proper
measurement with high accuracy as a reference
point for drawing contour lines on
topographical maps. On the ground these
points are marked and known as Bench Marks.