Lesson 5: Data Management

Central Tendency
• In general terms, central tendency is a statistical measure that determines a
single value that accurately describes the center of the distribution and
represents the entire distribution of scores.
• The goal of central tendency is to identify the single value that is the best
representative for the entire set of data.
• By identifying the "average score“, central tendency allows researchers to
summarize or condense a large set of data into a single value.
• In addition, it is possible to compare two (or more) sets of data by simply
comparing the average score (central tendency) for one set versus the average
score for another set.

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 Central Tendency
3 Primary measures of the central tendency:

1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode

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 Central Tendency
The Mean, the Median, and the Mode
• It is essential that central tendency be determined by an objective
and well‑defined procedure so that others will understand exactly
how the "average" value was obtained and can duplicate the process.
• No single procedure always produces a good, representative value.
Therefore, researchers have developed three commonly used
techniques for measuring central tendency: the mean, the median,
and the mode.

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 The Mean
• The mean is the most commonly used measure of central
tendency.
• Computation of the mean requires scores that are numerical
values measured on an interval or ratio scale.
• The mean is obtained by computing the sum, or total, for
the entire set of scores, then dividing this sum by the
number of scores.

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 The Mean
The mean formula (ungrouped) of given observations can be expressed as,
• Mean Formula = (Sum of Observations) ÷ (Total Numbers of Observations)
Similarly, we have a mean formula for grouped data. Which is expressed as

x̄ = Σ fx/N
where,
• x = the mean value of the set of given data.
• f = frequency of the individual data
• N = sum of frequencies
• Hence, the average of all the data points is termed as mean.
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 Example1: Mean (ungrouped)
Consider the following grades in five quizzes in statistics of the two students:
• Student A: 80, 60, 88, 75, 90
• Student B: 70, 100, 85, 92, 86

Solution:
Student A’s Mean x̄ = (80 + 60 + 88 + 75 + 90) / 5 = 78.6

Student B’s Mean x̄ = (70 + 100 + 85 + 92 + 86) / 5 = 86.6

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 Example2: Mean (grouped)
Consider the table: Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f)
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7

Find the mass average of students.

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 Example2: Mean (grouped)
Solution:
1. Get the middle value (midpoint) of class interval (x).
2. Get the product of midpoint and frequency (fx).
3. Compute the mass average of students (mean).

x̄ = Σfx / Σf
Where;
= mean (called x bar)
Σfx = total of fx
Σf = total of frequency
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 Example2: Mean (grouped)
Solution: The middle value of class interval = (sum of upper & lower limits) / 2

Middle Value (x)

Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) of class interval
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77
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 Example2: Mean (grouped)
Solution: The product of midpoint and frequency (fx).
Middle Value (x)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) fx
of class interval
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47 94
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52 208
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57 399
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62 620
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67 268
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72 432
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77 539
Σf = 40 Σfx = 2560
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 Example2: Mean (grouped)
Solution: Compute the mass average of students (mean).

x̄ = Σfx / Σf = 2560 / 40 = 64

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 The Median
• If the scores in a distribution are listed in order from smallest to
largest, the median is defined as the midpoint of the list.
• The median divides the scores so that 50% of the scores in the
distribution have values that are equal to or less than the median.
• Computation of the median requires scores that can be placed in rank
order (smallest to largest) and are measured on an ordinal, interval,
or ratio scale.

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 The Median
• For finding the median we need to arrange the data either in ascending order or
descending order.
• Now after arranging the ungrouped data, get the total number of observations
in the data. If the number is odd, the median is (n+1)/2. If the number is even,
find the two middle terms using the formula n/2 and (n/2) + 1. Find the mean of
these 2 middle terms.
• Thus the median formula for even numbers is given as:

Median = ((n/2)th term + ((n/2) + 1)th term)/2

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 The Median
Similarly, we have median formula for grouped data. The median formula for
grouped data is given as,
Median = Lb+[ {(n/2 – cf) / fm} cw ]
Where,
• n = Total frequency
• cf = Cumulative frequency of class before the median class
• fm = Frequency of the class median
• cw = Class width internal of median class
• Lb = Lower boundary of the class median

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 Example1: Median (ungrouped)
Consider the following grades in five quizzes in statistics of the two students:
• Student A: 80, 60, 88, 75, 90
• Student B: 70, 100, 85, 92, 86

Solution: Number of observations, n = 5 (odd)

Student A’s Median x̄ = 60, 75, 80, 88, 90 = 80

Student B’s Mean x̄ = 70, 85, 86, 92, 100 = 86

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 Example2: Median (ungrouped)
Consider the following grades in five quizzes in statistics of the two students:
• 80, 60, 88, 75, 90, 70, 100, 85, 92, 86

Solution: Number of observations, n = 10 (even)

1. Arranging from lowest to highest grades
60, 70, 75, 80, 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 100
The 2 middle terms is 85 & 86.

2. Median x̄ = (85 + 86) / 2 = 85.5

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 Example3: Median (grouped)
Consider the table: Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f)
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7

Find the median for grouped data.

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 Example3: Median (grouped)
Solution:
1. Get the middle value (midpoint) of class interval (x).
2. Get the cumulative frequency (cf).
3. Compute the Median for grouped data

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 Example3: Median (grouped)
Solution: The middle value of class interval = (sum of upper & lower limits) / 2

Middle Value (x)

Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) of class interval
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77
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 Example3: Median (grouped)
Solution: The cumulative frequency (cf).

Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) Middle Value (x) cf Computation
of class interval of cf

45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47 2 Copy 2

50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52 6 2+4
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57 13 6+7
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62 23 13 + 10
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67 27 23 + 4
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72 33 27 + 6
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77 40 33 + 7

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 Example3: Median (grouped)
Solution: The computation of Median grouped data.
Middle Value (x)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) of class interval cf
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47 2
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52 6
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57 13
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62 23 Median Class
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67 27
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72 33 Lb = 59.5
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77 40
cf = 13
n = 40
fm = 10
n/2 = 20
cw = 5 (45 – 49)
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 Example3: Median (grouped)
Solution: The computation of Median grouped data.

x̄ = 59.5 +
( 20 - 13
10 ) 5

x̄ = 63

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 The Mode
• The mode is defined as the most frequently occurring category or
score in the distribution.
• The mode can be determined for data measured on any scale of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.
• It is the only measure of central tendency used in both quantitative
and qualitative data.

For ungrouped data

• The mode is the most frequently occurring data (if there is one).

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 The Mode
For grouped data:
Mode = l +
( fm – f1
2fm – f1 – f2) xh

Where;
• fm = Frequency of modal class.
• f1 = Frequency of class proceeding to modal class.
• f2 = Frequency of class succeeding to modal class.
• l = Lower limit of the modal class
• h = width of the modal class

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 Example1: Mode (ungrouped)
Consider the table:
Middle Value (x)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) of class interval cf The Modal class is the
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47 2 class interval with the
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52 6 highest frequency.
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57 13
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62 23
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67 27 The Modal class is
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72 33 60 - 64
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77 40

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 Example2: Mode (ungrouped)
Find the mode of the data: {14,16,16,16,17,16,18}.
Answer:

Since there is only one value repeating itself, it is a unimodal list.

According to mean median mode formula,

Mode of {14,16,16,16,17,16,18} is 16.

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 Example3: Mode (ungrouped)
Find the mode of the data: {2,2,2,3,4,4,5,5,5}
Answer:

Mode of is 2 and 5.
because both 2 and 5 is repeated three times in the given set, it is a bimodal
list.

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 Example4: Mode (ungrouped)
Find the mode of the data: {2,2,2,3,4,4,5,5,5,7,8,8,8}
Answer:

Mode of is 2, 5, and 8.
because 2, 5, and 8 is repeated three times in the given set, it is a trimodal list.

When there are four or more modes in a data set, then the set is
called multimodal.

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 Example5: Mode (grouped)
Solution: The computation of Modal grouped data.
Middle Value (x)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency (f) of class interval cf
45 - 49 45.5 - 49.5 2 47 2
50 - 54 49.5 - 54.5 4 52 6 fm = 10
55 - 59 54.5 - 59.5 7 57 13
60 - 64 59.5 - 64.5 10 62 23 f1 = 6 preceding
65 - 69 64.5 - 69.5 4 67 27
70 - 74 69.5 - 74.5 6 72 33 f2 = 7 succeeding
75 - 79 74.5 - 79.5 7 77 40
l = 59.5
h = 5 (60 – 64)

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 Example2: Mode (grouped)
Solution: The computation of Modal grouped data.

mode = 59.5 +
( 10 – 6
)
2(10) – 6 – 7
5
fm = 10
f1 = 6 preceding
f2 = 7 succeeding
mode = 62.36
l = 59.5
h = 5 (60 – 64)

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 Range
• The range is the difference between the maximum and minimum values
in a set.
Formula
RANGE = (Umax – Lmin)

Example
• Data set 1: [1,25,50,75,100]; R: 100 - 0 = 100
• Data set 2: [48,49,50,51,52]; R: 52 – 48 = 4

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 Variance and Standard Deviation

• Variance is a measure of dispersion that takes into account the spread

of all data points in a data set.

• It's the measure of dispersion the most often used, along with the
standard deviation, which is simply the square root of the variance.

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 Population Variance

Formula: Grouped Data

where;
σ / variance = population variance
f = frequency of the group
N = the total number of observation (population size)
m / xi = midpoint of the group from the population
x2 / μ = the population mean
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 Sample Variance

Formula: Grouped Data

where;
s / variance = sample variance
f = frequency of the group
n = sample size (or number of data values in sample)
m / xi = midpoint of the group from the sample
= the sample mean
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 Population Variance

Formula: Ungrouped Data

where;
σ / variance = population variance
N = the total number of observation (population size)
x / xi = ith observation of the given data
μ = the population mean
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 Sample Variance

Formula: Ungrouped Data

where;
s / variance = sample variance
n = sample size (or number of data values in sample)
x / xi = ith observation of the given data
= the sample mean
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 Standard Deviation
Formula:

SD = Variance

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 Example1:
During a survey, 6 students were asked how many hours per day they
study on an average? Their answers were as follows: 2, 6, 5, 3, 2, 3. Evaluate the
sample variance.

Solution:
• Step 1: Find the sample mean of the data:
• (2+6+5+3+2+3) / 6
= 3.5
• Step 2: Construct the table:

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 Example1:
Step 2: Construct the table:

xi xi - (xi - )2
2 - 1.5 2.25
6 2.5 6.25
5 1.5 2.25 = 3.5
3 - 0.5 0.25
2 - 1.5 2.25
3 - 0.5 0.25 Σ(xi - )2
= 13.45
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 Example1:
Step 3: Solving for Sample Variance

s= 13.45 / (6 – 1)

s = 1.64

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 Example2:
Find the population variance of the numbers 3, 8, 6, 10, 12, 9, 11, 10, 12, 7. Also
determine the standard deviation.

Solution:
• Step 1: Find the population mean of the data:
• Mean (μ) = (3+8+6+10+12+9+11+10+12+7) / 10 = 88 / 10 = 8.8

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 Example2:
Step 2: Construct the table: x x-μ (x - μ)2
3 - 5.8 33.64
8 - 0.8 0.64
6 - 2.8 7.84
10 1.2 1.44
μ = 8.8 12 3.2 10.24
9 0.2 0.04
Σ(x - μ)2 11 2.2 4.84
= 73.6 10 1.2 1.44
12 3.2 10.44
7 - 1.8 3.24
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 Example2:
Step 3: Solving for Population Variance

Variance = 73.6 / 10

Variance = 7.36

Solving for Standard Deviation

SD = variance
SD= 2.71
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 Questions?
Clarifications?
Thank you for listening!