UNIT FIVE: POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY

SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the

Sultanate of Adal
• Around 1525, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi gave Adal
a new military momentum.
• Ahmed was born at Hubet, located between Dire Dawa &
Jigjiga.
• He soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal,
•He convinced Afar, Somali, Harla, Harari and Argoba not to
fight amongst themselves.
•Imam Ahmed called for Islamic Puritanism.
•He united Muslim community to fight the Christian
Kingdom.
• Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army; Ahmed refused to pay
tribute.
• In 1527, he controlled the territories including Bali,
Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata.
In March 1529, Imam’s army defeated Christian forces at
Shimbra Kure, near Mojdo.
• Imam’s army made a large-scale control and moved as far
north as Mereb Melash.
• The Christian Kingdom met a problem of logistics and the
leadership of the army.
• Ahmed’s army managed logistics problems with its small-
sized army.
• It possessed better mobility and flexible tactics with a
unified command.
• Imam Ahmed established a bureaucracy that constituted
from his own men and newly recruited personnel from the
Christian territories.
• In 1535, Emperor Libne-Dingel managed to send letter of
help to Portugal.
• In 1541 the assistance came via Massawa.
• It consisted of 400 musketeers under the command of
Christopher da Gama.
• The imam won victory at Wofla valley, southern Tigray, in
the late August 1542.
• Christopher was captured and beheaded there in Wofla.
• Ahmed felt confident enough and:
– sent Turkish soldiers back to their home; and
– ordered most of his native army back to its camp.
• The surviving Portuguese met Queen Seblewongel, ex-wife
of Libne-Dingel.
• Seblewongel and her reigning son Emperor Gelawdewos
were prepared for final fighting.
The forces of Adal were defeated at the Battle of Woyna
Dega, Dembya, in 1543.
• The imam was killed and his wife Bati Dil Wonbera fled to
Adal.
• Gelawdewos restored possession of almost all the northern
and central plateau.
• Gelawdewos won submission of Muslim communities in the
highlands
• He was tolerant toward them; he promoted national
conciliation.
• The Chewa, Christian regiment, camped on the borderlands.
• However, controlling the Muslim dominated areas was not an
easy task. The Adali-Solomonic conflict did not halt; Emir
Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid reorganized the administration and
army of Adal.
• The emir launched an offensive war against the Christian
territories.
• In 1559 Emir Nur killed Gelawdewos in the Awash Valley.
• There was no remarkable battle between the exhausted Adal
and the ‘Solomonic’ Kingdom since 1559.
The Involvement of Portugal & Ottoman Turkey
• To secure her interest around in East Africa, Portuguese
established alliance with the Christian Kingdom. To further
their interests, they started the old “semi-spiritual quest” for
Prester John.
• For the same purpose, Ottomans on their part got the co-
religionist Sultanate of Adal as their ally.
• Hence, both the Sultanate of Adal and the Christian
Kingdom were able to get military assistance from their
respective allies. And their conflict took the international
dimension.
 Consequences of the Conflict between Muslim Sultanates
and Christian Kingdom
• Both sides had lost thousands of soldiers and civilians,
including clergy.
• Religious and political institutions were destroyed by both
sides of combatants.
• The conflicts greatly weakened the Church.
• Helped the Oromo population expansion due to exhaustion
of the two powers.
• Linguistic, religious and cultural interactions were positive
consequences out of war.
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
 In the 16th c, the Christian kingdom was threatened by:
 Oromo expansion
 Turkish encroachment
 Internal power struggle.
 To resolve these and other challenges, Christian kings to
either of measures.
 approaching Roman Catholicism and wine weapon and
military training
 integrated the Oromo with the forces of central government
 Following footsteps of Portuguese soldiers, Jesuits arrived
in the kingdom in 1557.
 The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and
therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and human.
 EOC taught that Christ, through union had a perfect human
nature inseparable from divinity.
 They lobbied monarchs to embrace Catholic faith.
 Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with
the missionaries.
 But he refused to accept the new doctrine and wrote
“Confession of Faith”, a book which defended the
teachings of EOC.
 Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), secretly embraced Catholicism.
 Convinced by Pedro Paez, Susenyos (r. 1607-32) converted
to Catholicism in 1612.
 He encouraged imposition of Catholic practices in the
kingdom.
 Bloody civil war followed and lasted for a decade.
 Susenyos eventually abdicated the throne in favor of his
son Fasiledes or Fasil (r. 1632-1667).
 On his reign Fasiledes took the following measures:
 punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother uncle
Se'ela Kristos.
 introduced a new policy called "Close-Door Policy."
 initiated diplomatic relations with the Islamic world.
 concluded (in 1647) an agreement with Ottomans that the
latter should block any European to Ethiopia.
 Secret visits by Doctor Charles. J. Poncet and James Bruce
were exceptions regarding "Close-Door Policy."
 Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions:
 Tewahedo (Union) teaches Hulet Lidet (two births); first
in eternity as a Divine Being; second, born again from St.
Mary into the world as a perfect man and perfect divinity.
 Qibat (Unction) accepted the eternal birth as the first
birth of Christ, but claimed that when he was born into
the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
 Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) teaches Sost Lidet
/Three Births; first in eternity as a Divine Being; second,
born again from St. Mary; third, anointed by Holy Ghost.
 5.3. Population Movements
 Population expansion refers to a large-scale movement of
people from one geographical location to another.
 It could be caused by either push or pull factors.
5.3.1. Population Movements of Argoba, Afar, and Somali
• The Argoba, Afar and Somali territories lay in the region
where trade routes passed.
• They were affected by the Muslim-Christian military
conflicts.
• Following the victory of Imam Ahmed, they expanded to the
highland territories.
The Argoba:
 The Muslim-Christian conflicts resulted in dispersion of the
people.
 Today we observe Argoba on fragmented settlements in the Horn
of Africa.
• The Afar:
• It was affected by the overpopulation, overgrazing and drought.
• It was pressed by the Walasma-Solomonic wars.
• Their pastoral economy helped them to survive the destructive
wars.
• The Afar moved towards the east until they reached the middle
Awash.
The Somali:
•Prior to 16th c, Somali faced environmental pressure.
•They were strong force behind the military strength of the Imam.
•During the war, they expanded to highlands.
•They returned back to home base following Ahmed’s death.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement
(1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
 was an institution through which the Oromo socially
organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended
their territories, maintained law and order, and managed
their economies.
constituted elements of democracy such as periodic
succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man rule.
Other principles of the system included representation of all
lineages, clans and confederacies.
It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion.
• In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict
resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).
In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-
gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine
generations represented an era.
The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-
grades and generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities.
In the system, ten age- grades and five classes operated in
parallel.
• The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of
the government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally “father
of the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set
Table I: Age-grades and their roles
Gada grade Age Roles
Dabale Birth-8 years Socialization
Game 9-16
Folle 17-24 Military training, agriculture
Qondala 25-32 Military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 Candidate for political power
Luba 41-48 Leaders of gada government
Yuba 49-80 Senior advisors, educators and ritual
leaders
.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.

Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,

which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
These included:
•Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
• Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
•Abba Dula (war leader),
• Abba Sera (father of law),
• Abba Alanga (judge),
•Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.

Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,

which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.

The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer

from one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
I. Natural factors include:
• Demographic factor- growing human population
• Growing in number of livestock
II. Man-made Factors
• The conflicts between Christian State and Muslim States.
• The need for the land and safety from war pressures forces
mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave for other areas.
• When the population movement began, the Oromo were
already organized under Borana and Barentu
confederacies.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars
( with the Christian Kingdom, Adal Sultanate and others).
In the course of their movement into various regions,
different Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
Gadaa leaders laid down cardinal laws in their respective
areas.
See gadaa centers like:
Oda Nabee of Tulama
Oda Roba of Arsi
Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna
Oda Hulle of Jimma
Oda Bisil of Mecha
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi
Oda Dogi of Ilu
Oda Garado of Waloo
Various Oromo groups kept their inter-relations through the
office of Abba Muda.
 They formed alliances during times of difficulty.
 Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law)
through sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu.
Madda-Walabu was center of chaffe until the pan-Oromo
assembly was forbidden in 1900.
In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation
formula including land.
Land holding system to regulate resource and their
interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye
system.
The system established rights of precedency (seniority) in
possession of land.
Accordingly, place names were given the names of pioneers
as markers of qabiyye rights.
 5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and
Religious Diversities
The major factors for the people's interactions across regions
were
• The political, social, and economic processes of the
medieval period in the Horn of Africa.
•Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times.
Cases of contacts were the trade contacts and conflicts to
control trade routes, religious expansion, and territorial
expansion and population movements.
• The major consequences of the interactions in the medieval
period particularly in the population movement of the
sixteenth century were:
 -the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
-Population movement of the period relatively covered
extensive geographical areas in the region.
-It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions
from south to north and from east to west.
-It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by
the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north
to the south.
- Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population
movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the
expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.
-The Oromo population movement put an end to the
wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the
southward expansion of the Christian state.
At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the
sixteenth century brought far-reaching integrations among peoples
across ethnic and religious background.
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent.
In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child.
Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos
commonly known as Oromsu.
Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or
groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and
obligations that such membership entailed.
Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the
clan.
•The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions,
national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-
cultural values and institutions. A number of peoples in the
neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and
Oromo language.
Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and
traditions of the people with whom they came into contact.
• The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems
and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and
Muslim states. It is important to mention the rise of nobles
in the northern Oromo in politics particularly during the
Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern
Ethiopia.
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,
Southern and Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East: Somali, Afar,
Argobba, Harari Emirate
Somali
-Shir(council)= governor
_The Somali people have inhabited vast territory in the Horn.
- The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military
success depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian
Kingdom.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central
Parts
(The Kingdom of Shewa, Gurage, Kambata & Hadiya)
The Kingdom of Shewa
-was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703)
- The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. -During
his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed
“treaty of friendship and commerce” with the British in
1841.
- 5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South (Sidama, Gedeo,
Konso)
- Sidama
- -inhabited the area from Lakes Hawasa and Abaya up to
3000 m a.s.l in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona,
Bansa and Arroressa districts.
- System of governance:The Sidama had an indigenous
system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote
exercised political and administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo.
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the
Woma.
-Seera was the social constitution of the Sidama people
governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale
(the ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong.
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
(Wolayta,Kafa, Yem, Gamo, Dawuro, Ari)
#Wolayta-ruled by Kawo(king).
From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two
successive dynasties ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the
Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami, the
Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the
fifteenth century.
Ari
The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of
people since early times.
- These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer,
Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male, etc. Major
economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture,
pastoralism and handcrafts.
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West (Berta and Gumuz,
Anyua, Nuer, Majang, The Kunama)
Nuer - Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended
across the savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the
Upper Nile regions of the Sudan.
Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely settled in
the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and
parts of the Sudan.
 5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period(Ethiopian Renaissance)

The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-

Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian emperors
shifted to Gondar area.
• Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz
in 1571.
• Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar at places like Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
• Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established
his political seat there.
•Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three
successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I
Achievements of Gondar include:
-Architecture e.g. Fasil Gimb.
-Painting
-Literature
-Trade & urbanization
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
Era of lords(mesfanits/nobility).
-Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of
political power was in the hands of different regional lords.
- The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu
was crowned as Tewodros II.
- The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju,
Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the
leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at
Debre-tabor.
Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the
founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
The period of zemene mesafint was brought to an end by
Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted
from 1840s to 1855.

Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:

 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
rivarly and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king maker;
 establishment of fragile coalition to advance political
interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its
traditional role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door
Policy.”
In addition to the above features, there were developments in
terms of literature, arts, architecture etc during the period.

END OF CHAPER 5