PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

EE03-3-1-PG / VE1

Exploration Geophysics
 TOPIC & STRUCTURE OF THE
LESSON

• Introduction
• Geophysics in Oil & Gas Field Life Cycle
• Principle of Geophysics
• Seismic Acquisition
• Seismic Processing/Imaging
• Seismic Interpretation

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 2

 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• At the end of this topic, YOU should be able

to:
– Describe geological principles and exploration
methods. (C2, PLO1)

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 3

 KEY TERMS YOU MUST BE ABLE
TO USE
• If you have mastered this topic, you should be able to use
the following terms correctly in your assessments: -
– Seismic acquisition
– Seismic imaging/processing
– Seismic interpretation

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 4

 Introduction
• Estimating oil and gas reserves is one of the most important
functions for petroleum companies.

• The objective of geophysics study is to locate or detect the presence

of subsurface structures or bodies, and determine their size, shape,
depth, and physical properties (density, velocity, porosity…) as well
as the fluid content.

• In oil and gas, we use seismic geophysics survey which consists of:
– Seismic acquisition
– Seismic imaging/processing
– Seismic interpretation

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 5

 LIFE OF FIELD:
EXPLORATION / APPRAISAL / DEVELOPMENT /
PRODUCTION

GEOLOGY OTHERS
• Outcrops • Gravity survey
• Basin study GEOPHYSICS • Magnetic survey
• Sequence • Seismic acquisition • Positioning
stratigraphy • Seismic processing • Remote sensing
• Geochemistry • Seismic interpretation • Core & sidewall
• Structural geology • Seismic evaluation sampling
• Sedimentology • Rock physics • Wireline log
• Biostratigraphy • Seismic survey*

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 6

 Geology & Geophysics in Life of Field
GEOMATICS GRAV / MAG
REMOTE SENSING SEISMIC INTERPRETATION & 3D VISUALISATION

2D/3D SEISMIC ACQ / PROCESSING

GEOP

QUANTITATIVE GEOPHYSICS

SEISMIC IMAGING & VELOCITY

RESERVOIR SURVELLANCE ( TIME LAPSE)
AMPLITUDE / ROCK PROPERTIES
FORMATION EVALUATION

FRONTIER PROSPECT FIELD

PLAN & BLOCK
EVALUATION & DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION ABANDONMENT
ACQ EXPL
APPRAISAL

RESERVOIR
REGIONAL EXPLORATION GEOLOGY
Modelling
GEOLOGY

GEOLOGICAL
STUDIES CORE ANALYSIS
Petroleum Economics
. Basin Analysis SEDIMENTOLOGY
. Sequence Stratigraphy
. Structural / Analysis GEOCHEMICAL
Biostratigraphy H. C Resource & Risk
. Petroleum System Analysis
. Basin Modeling
STRUCTURAL RESTORATION
RESERVOIR FAULT SEAL.
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 7
 GEOPHYSICAL TECHNOLOGY
Geophysics Expertise

-Seismic Data Acquisition

-Seismic Data Processing
SEISMOLOGY -Survey and Positioning
-Seismic Survey Design
- OBS / Shear Seismic

GEOPHYSICS
-AVO & Rock Physics Modeling
SPECIALISED -Seismic Inversion
GEOPHYSICS -Structural Modeling & Imaging
-Seismic Attribute

3DVIZ

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 8

 Seismic Interpretation Value Chain

Structure & Strat.

Mapping
Geological Models
Concept

3D Seismic
Well Data Prospect Recommendation
Rock Physics Evaluation To Drill

Resources
& Risks
Attribute Analysis

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 9

 Attributes of a Good Interpreter

GEOLOGY . Conceptual Thinking & Mindset

. Command on Geological Processes
. Capacity to Translate into Model

INTERPRETER
These three disciplines
contribute to a successful
Integrated evaluation of
Prospect and reservoirs.

GEOPHYSICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

. Expertise on Signal Processing . Expertise in Image Processing

. Ability to pickup heartbeat of geological bodies . Visualization Algorithm
. Rock Physics . Color Vision & Display
. Geophysical Evaluation
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 10
 GEOLOGY

SEISMIC DATA
ACQUISITION
SEISMIC DATA
VIBROSEIS
SOURCE

Subsurface is explored by ‘exciting’ the earth by a SOURCE like Dynamite or VIBROSEIS. This creates a
seismic wave that enters the subsurface and is returned to the surface by the Reflection process in the form
of a Seismic Response, and is recorded on the surface by a sensor (Geophone/Hydrophone)

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 11

 SEISMIC
SECTION

Figure shows seismic section with Amplitude and Structure map. Conformable amplitudes
with structure is an indicator of hydrocarbons. But it does not say oil or gas.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 12

 Seismic Amplitude

• In a seismic survey, seismic amplitude is a measure of the contrast in

properties between two layers. If the data are converted to relative
impedance then seismic data observe the relative change of the rock
property impedance (= hardness) as we move from one layer to the
next.
• Note that seismic cannot tell us about the absolute change, only
about relative changes.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 13

 Geophysical Methods

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 14

 Seismic Reflection & Refraction

• Seismic reflection and refraction is the principal seismic method by

which the petroleum industry explores hydrocarbon-trapping
structures in sedimentary basins.
• These methods are by far the most important geophysical methods
and the predominance of these methods over other geophysical
methods is due to various factors such as the higher accuracy,
higher resolution and greater penetration.
• Further, the importance of the seismic methods lies in the fact that
the data, if properly handled, yield an almost unique and
unambiguous interpretation. These methods utilize the principle of
elastic waves travelling with different velocities in different layer
formations of the Earth.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 15

 Seismic Acquisition

• Seismic acquisition is the generation and recording

of seismic data. Acquisition involves many
different receiver configurations, including laying geophones or
seismometers on the surface of the Earth or seafloor, towing
hydrophones behind a marine seismic vessel, suspending
hydrophones vertically in the sea or placing geophones in a wellbore
(as in a vertical seismic profile) to record the seismic signal.
• A source, such as a vibrator unit, dynamite shot, or an air gun,
generates acoustic or elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth,
pass through strata with different seismic responses and filtering
effects, and return to the surface to be recorded as seismic data.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 16

 Seismic Reflection

• Seismic reflection is generally applicable to depths greater than 80

to 100 feet, and is widely used on land to map a variety of deep
features (e.g., stratigraphy, faults).

• This technique is also well suited to marine applications (e.g., lakes,

rivers, oceans) where the inability of water to transmit shear waves
makes collection of high-quality reflection data possible, even at
very shallow depths that would be impractical or impossible on
land.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 17

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 18
 Reflection Seismology
• Most important tool for 2D/3D mapping of
subsurface using echosounding.
– Reveals layering and structural
features such as faulting and folding

• Extensively used by the oil and gas

industry to search for hydrocarbon fields.

• Reflection seismology can be considered

as echo or depth sounding and it is easier
performed at sea than on land.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 19

 Reflection Seismic Output

• Known as seismic section / seismic reflection profiles.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 20

 Seismic Refraction

• Seismic refraction is commonly limited to mapping bedrock depths at

depths less than 100 feet, and is generally applicable only where the
seismic velocities of layers increase with depth.

• Seismic refraction is a geophysical method used in the fields of

engineering geology, geotechnical engineering and exploration
geophysics.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 21

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 22
 Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a
barrier.

Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass

from one medium to another
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 23
 Seismic Acquisition Offshore
• An air gun towed behind the survey ship
transmits sound waves through the water
column and into the subsurface
• Changes in rock type or fluid content
reflect the sound waves towards the
surface
• Receivers towed behind the vessel
record how long it takes for the sound
waves to return to the surface
• Sound waves reflected by different
boundaries arrive at different times.
• The same principles apply to onshore
acquisition.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 24

 Seismic Acquisition Onshore
• Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a “thumper” truck. Geophones
arrayed in a line behind the truck record the returning seismic signal.

Vibrator
Geophones (source)
(receivers)

Sub-horizontal beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 25

 Advantages & Disadvantages of Seismic
Methods
Advantages
• Can detect both lateral and depth variations in
a physically relevant parameter: seismic
velocity.
• Can produce detailed images of structural
features present in the subsurface.
• Can be used to delineate stratigraphic and, in
some instances, depositional features.
• Response to seismic wave propagation is
dependent on rock density and a variety of
physical (elastic) constants. Thus, any
mechanism for changing these constants
(porosity changes, permeability changes,
compaction, etc.) can, in principle, be
delineated via the seismic methods.
• Direct detection of hydrocarbons, in some
instances, is possible.
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics
Disadvantages
• Amount of data collected in a survey can
rapidly become overwhelming.
• Data is expensive to acquire and the logistics
of data acquisition are more intense than other
geophysical methods.
• Data reduction and processing can be time
consuming, require sophisticated computer
hardware, and demand considerable expertise.
• Equipment for the acquisition of seismic
observations is, in general, more expensive
than equipment required for the other
geophysical surveys.
• Direct detection of common contaminants
present at levels commonly seen in hazardous
waste spills is not possible.
Slide 26
 Seismic Processing/Imaging

• Analysis of recorded seismic signals to filter (reduce/eliminate)

unwanted components (noise) and create an image of the subsurface
to enable geological interpretation, and eventually to obtain an
estimate of the distribution of material properties in the subsurface
(inversion).

• Seismic data recorded in digital form by each channel of

the recording instrument are represented by a time
series. Processing algorithms are designed for and applied to either
single channel time series, individually, or multichannel time series.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 27

 Acquisition Processing Seismic Section

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 28

 Seismic Processing Method
• Deconvolution:
– Often improves temporal resolution by collapsing the seismic
wavelet to approximately a spike and suppressing reverberations.

• Common Midpoint Stacking (CMP):

– CMP is the most robust of the three principal processes. By using
redundancy in CMP recording, stacking can attenuate uncorrelated
noise significantly, thereby increasing the S/N ratio.

• Migration:
– Geometric repositioning of returned signals to show and event
(layer/structure) where it is being hit by the seismic waves, rather than
where it is being picked up.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 29

 Seismic Section

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 30

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 31

First, gather sound data for
one location and correct for
delayed arrival (normal move
out)
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology
Stacking
Next, take all the sound Finally, place stacks for
traces for that one place adjacent locations side
and stack them on top of by side to produce a
each other seismic line
Ch6- Geophysics Slide 32
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 33
 Seismic Interpretation
• Seismic Interpretation is the extraction of subsurface geologic
information from seismic data.

• The seismic record contains two basic elements for the interpreter to
study. The first is the time of arrival of any reflection (or refraction) from
a geological surface. The actual depth to this surface is a function of the
thickness and velocity of overlying rock layers.

• The second is the shape of the reflection, which includes how strong the
signal is, what frequencies it contains, and how the frequencies are
distributed over the pulse. This information can often be used to support
conclusions about the lithology and fluid content of the seismic reflector
being evaluated.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 34

 Pre-requisite for Seismic Interpretation

• Establish geological depositional model

• Establish facies type
• Perform sequence stratigraphic analysis
• Identify marker horizons for good correction
• Well-logs
• Biostratigraphy
• Establish active petroleum system:
– Source
– Seal
– Reservoir
* Seismic & Position Data

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 35

 What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary
between beds with different properties.
There are many reflectors on a
There may be a change of lithology or
seismic section. Major
fluid fill from Bed 1 to Bed 2. These
changes in properties usually
property changes cause some sound
produce strong, continuous
waves to be reflected towards the
reflectors as shown by the
surface.
arrow.

energy signal
source receiver

In y
co ra
Bed 1 m ed
in ct
g
ra f le
lower velocity y Re
higher velocity Re
f ra c te
d ra
y
Bed 2

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 36

 Understanding Data

• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

• Floating datum
• Two way time (TWT)
• Time versus depth

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 37

 Common Depth Point (CDP)
Common midpoint above CDP

Sound sources Sound receivers

S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1

e
So

ed v
ct wa
un
CDPs are defined as ‘the

fle d
re un
wa
common reflecting point at

So
ve
depth on a reflector or the

halfway point when a wave
travels from a source to a
reflector to a receiver’.
in
Change in lithology =
reflecting horizon
Common reflecting point or
common depth point (CDP)

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 38

 Floating Datum

The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording surface and
the zero line (generally sea level). This travel time depends on rock type, how
weathered the rock is, and other factors.

The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface along which
the seismic data were acquired.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 39

 Two-Way-Time (TWT)

TWT
surface
Two way time (TWT) 0
indicates the time required
for the seismic wave to 0.25 seconds
travel from a source to some 0.25 seconds
point below the surface and
back up to a receiver. 0.5

In this example the TWT is

seconds

0.5 seconds.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 40

 Time vs. Depth
Two way time (TWT) does not
equate directly to depth.

Depth of a specific reflector can

be determined using boreholes

For example, 926 m depth =

0.58 sec. TWT 288

0.58 sec 926 926 m

1865

m 41
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 41
 Time-Depth Conversion

• Depth conversion is an important step of the seismic

reflection method, which converts the acoustic wave travel
time to actual depth, based on the acoustic velocity of
subsurface medium (sediments, rocks, water).

• Depth conversion integrates several sources of information

about the subsurface velocity to derive velocity model:
– Velocity measurements made in oil and gas wells
– Empirical knowledge about the velocities of the rocks in
the area investigated

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 42

 The Seismic Experiment:
Interaction Of Geology & Geophysics

Depth GEOLOGICAL
SEISMIC SOURCE
Km STRUCTURE

, Rho 1
,V s1
Vp 1 Rho 2
,
s2
V
V p 2,

Courtesy GX Technology
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 43
 FORWARD & INVERSE SEISMIC
MODELLING
START END

 Structure
ACQUISITION
 Velocity
SYSTEMS
 Rock, Fluid, Lithology
t
FORWARD

WAVELET
RECOVER
GEOLOGY
EARTH PROPOGATION

INVERSION
EFFECT

t
* DECONVOLVE
CONVOLVE
*
EARTH MODEL
• Vp, Vs, ρ
• Porosity SEISMIC RESPONSE
• Structure
• Saturation
EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 44
 Forward Seismic Modelling

• In a forward seismic modelling, a technique called synthetic seismic

is used. It is used to predict seismic response.

• A synthetic seismic is a seismic trace that has been constructed from

well log data. It represents the idealize trace that should be observed
with the seismic method at the location of the well.

• In forward seismic, the wavelet seismic (source of sound wave)

convolves with the earth model to create a seismic response.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide45

 Inverse Seismic Modelling

• Inverse seismic modeling a technique where the available data at

hand is the seismic response taken from seismic survey.

• This seismic response are deconvoluted to become seismic wavelet

for earth model prediction. It is a method to investigate the actual
geology of the Prospect, which is represented in the form of sonic
waves and density profiles.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 46

 Seismic Interpretation Example
ANDING-2 ANDING UTARA-1(Projected 5km to east)
AA BB

TOP GROUP L
TOP METAMORPHIC
BASEMENT

TD=2734m TD=2740m
80m in BSMT 250m in BSMT
ANDING ANDING UTARA

A Anding Barat
-1 Proposed Anding Barat Laut
-A Anding Utara
-1/ST B
MALONG ANDING BARAT LAUT ANDING / ADG. UTARA DUYONG
BASEMENT PLAY 1000 m
Group H & younger PROSPECT

o o oo
o o oo o o oo o o

Adg
BB o oo o oo o

Group I & J

Utara
-1
o o o
o o o oo o o
o o o o o oo o oo o o o o o o
o oo o
2000 m

Adg Brt
-1 Adg-1 o o o o oo

Type : Oil
o oo o
oo o oo

Adg-2
o oo
o oooo
oooo o L shale o oo ooo
oo o L sand Group K
oooo
ooooooo o
oo o oo
oooo o
o o oo & OLDER
o oooo o
o

AA
o
oo oooo o
S o ooooo o
S
o ooo
S
o o o o

Data : 2D/ 3D
3000 m
PTD
3250m
S
Feri-1
Basement

LOCATION MAP
Malong 5G-17.1-1 Technology : Amplitude 4000 m
PROVEN OIL IN
o
o oo oo
o
o o oo

PROVEN OIL AND PROVEN GAS

o
o oo oo
o
o o
o o o
POTENTIAL OIL IN POTENTIAL OIL IN
o o
o
o o
o
POTENTIAL OIL
S
SOURCE CHARGE

Operator : PCSB
FRACTURED BASEMENT
IN CLASTIC GAS IN CLASTIC IN CLASTIC FRACTURED BASEMENT CLASTIC ROCK
AND GAS IN CLASTIC

PROVEN OIL

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 47

 Seismic Interpretation Example

DEEP WATER TURBIDITE

MALAKAI
Type : Oil
Data : HI-RES 3D
Technology : AMP/ AVO/ VIZ
OPERATOR : SHELL

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 48

 QUICK REVIEW QUESTIONS

• Explain seismic method.

• What are some examples of seismic acquisition
method?
• Describe seismic imaging/processes?
• What are some examples seismic
imaging/processing?
• Describe seismic interpretation.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 49

 SUMMARY OF MAIN TEACHING
POINTS
• Seismic survey is widely used in hydrocarbon exploration due
to its high accuracy.

• Seismic interpretation can be done in two ways; forward and

inverse modelling.

• Seismic interpretation can give insight on Earth model

parameter.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 50

 QUESTION AND ANSWER SESSION

Q&A

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 51

 WHAT WE WILL COVER NEXT

• Sedimentology of source rocks and maturity.

EE013-3—1-Petroleum Geology Ch6- Geophysics Slide 52