Seismic Interpretation by Dr. Ali Bakr-4

SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Dr. ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Contents
1. Basic background
2. Structural Interpretation
3. Seismic attributes
4. AVO implications
5. Seismic Inversion
6. Seismic stratigraphy
7. 4D seismic (Time Laps)
ALI BAKR
1-BASIC BACKGROUND
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Seismic acquisition
• Seismic processing
• Understanding the data
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping are key skills

that are used commonly in the oil industry
• This teaching resource introduces the basic principles of

seismic interpretation and then, if time permits, they can be
applied in a practical exercise
• The resource dovetails with the A level Geology specifi cations
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Ba.
ckground
Seismic acquisition offshore
• An air gun towed behind the survey

ship transmits sound waves through the
water column and into the subsurface
• Changes in rock type or fluid content
reflect the sound waves towards the
surface
• Receivers towed behind the vessel
record how long it takes for the sound
waves to return to the surface
• Sound waves reflected by different
boundaries arrive at different times.
• The same principles apply to
onshore
acquisition
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition onshore
• Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a
“thumper” truck. Geophones arrayed in a line behind the
truck record the returning seismic signal.
Geophones Vibrator
(source)
(receivers)
Sub-horizontal beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition onshore
• Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the subsurface
geology to be interpreted.
Lithology change
Angular unconformity
Lithology change
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic Processing
• Wiggle trace to CDP gather

• Normal move out correction
• Stacking
• What is a refl ector?
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Wiggle trace to CDP gather Seismic Processing
Wiggle traces CDP gather
Graphs of intensity of sound as received by Graphs of intensity for one location

the recorders collected into groups and shown in a
sequence.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Normal move out correction Seismic Processing
CMP
Sound sources Sound receivers
S1 R3 R2 R1
S2
1
S3 2
Change in lithology from mud to sand so sound

is reflected back to surface
CDP
Data for one point from different signals to different receivers

1. More time needed to reach distant receivers so the data look like
a curve. Original CDP corrected for
gather … normal move out
2.Correcting for normal move out restores the curve to a near
horizontal display.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Stacking Seismic Processing
First, gather sound data for one Next, take all the sound traces for Finally, place stacks for
location and correct for that one place adjacent locations side
delayed arrival (normal move and stack them on top of each by side to produce a
out) other seismic line
ALI BAKR 12
1-Basic Background
What is a refl ector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary between
beds with different properties. There may There are many reflectors on a
be a change of lithology or fluid fill from seismic section. Major changes
Bed 1 to Bed 2. These property changes in properties usually produce
cause some sound waves to be reflected strong, continuous reflectors as
towards the surface. shown by the arrow.
energy signal
source receiver
Bed 1
lower velocity
higher velocity
Bed 2
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Understanding the data
• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

• Floating datum
• Two way time (TWT)
• Time versus depth
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Common Depth Points Common midpoint above CDP
Sound sources Sound receivers

CDPs are defined as
‘the common refl ecting S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1
point at depth on a
refl ector or the halfway
point when a wave
travels from a source to
a reflector to a Change in lithology =
receiver’. reflecting horizon
Common reflecting point or

common depth point (CDP)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Floating datum
The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording surface and the zero
line (generally sea level). This travel time depends on rock type, how weathered the rock is,
and other factors.
The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface along which the
seismic data were acquired.
ALI BAKR
16
1-Basic Background
Two way time (TWT) TWT

indicates the time required surface
for the seismic wave to 0
travel from a source to
some point below the 0.25 seconds
surface and back up to a 0.25 seconds
receiver.
0.5
In this example the TWT is
0.5 seconds.
seconds
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Time versus depth
• Two way time (TWT) does

not equate directly to depth
• Depth of a specific reflector
can be determined using
boreholes
• For example, 926 m depth = 288
0.58 sec. TWT
0.58 sec 926 926 m
1865
m
ALI BAKR
1-BASIC BACKGROUND
• Check line scale and orientation.
• Work from the top of the section, where clarity is usually

best, towards the bottom.
• Distinguish the major refl ectors and geometries of seismic

sequences.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Some energy will be reflected, some will be

transmitted where there is a change in AI
V
1
2V2 • Amount refl ected (amplitude of reflection)

will depend on the relative difference in
physical properties across the interface
1V1
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
– Defi ne refl ection

coeffi cient (RC)
1 V1
 2V 2 -  1V 1 RC = AI2 – AI1
2V2 +  1V1
AI2 + AI1
2V2
– If AI2 > AI1 – positive RC
– If AI2 < AI1 – negative RC
1V1
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Polarity Conventions
Blue
Slow, (90%)
Peak
Less
(60% Red
Dense
+ve ) (10%)
R.C.
Troug Blue
Fast, h (10%)
more (40%)
Dense Red
(90%)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Not all changes in lithology associated

with change in AI. Changes in fl uid
content in a single lithology can give rise
to refl ections
• Different combinations of layers lithologies

can have the same RC Seismic “non-unique”
• Seismic data image interfaces – we observe

changes in AI across an interface, not
properties of layers themselves
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Convolutional Theorem
Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-

dimensional series of refl ection coeffi cients
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-

dimensional series of refl ection coeffi cients
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Each RC gives rise to a separate refl ection event, the amplitude

of which is proportional to the change in AI across the
interface
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• The final image we will record for that location consists of the
algebraic sum of all the individual refl ections
• Mathematically we “convolve” the wavelet with the series
of refl ection coeffi cients
ALI BAKR
1- Basic Background
Data required for synthetic calculation
• Seismic Data
• Well Curves (Sonic and Density)
• Well Position relative to Seismic
• Check Shot / T-D relationship
• Well Deviation Survey
• Seismic Acquisition and Processing Info
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Top & Base Top & Base

Resolved Unresolved
Impedance High Frequency Low

Frequency
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Seismic ability to define top

and bottom of a rock layer
In general, reflections are composites of thin

layer effects.
ALI BAKR
3
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Resolution depends on:
Frequency content in seismic data.
The interval velocity at the objective level
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave =   Vf

Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and
f is the dominant frequency in Hz

 Vint
Rv 
4fdom
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
• Most of the energy in a seismic wavelet is contained in a band of

frequencies centered about the dominant frequency. The
dominant period can be defined as the time between two major
crests. The dominant frequency is the reciprocal of the dominant
period. The equation for wavelength, , is:
= velocity/frequency
Calculate wavelengths for the following

cases: Shallow rocks: V=2000 m/s, f=50 Hz;
Deep rocks: V=6000 m/s, f=25 Hz.
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical
Resolution
Conventional HFITM
Vertical Resolution – Example (‘HFI’ Processing from Geotrace)

ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
• Example 1:
V = 7,000 m/s
F = 50 Hz
V
 f = 7,000/50 [(m/s)/(cycles/s)]
= 140 m
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
• Example 2:
V = 3,000 m/s
F = 50 Hz
l = V/F
= 3,000/50
[(m/s)/(cycles/s)]
= 60 m
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution (Summery)
• Vertical Resolution is the ability to detect and map thin

events such as reservoir sand bodies
• It is determined by the average frequency and bandwidth of

the seismic data
• We can typically resolve down to ¼ wavelength
• Wavelength is determined by frequency and velocity:

λ=V/f so resolution ~ V/(4*f)
• Resolution deteriorates with depth
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
0.
• The seismic signal contains a range of frequencies (left)

• The broader the bandwidth, the sharper the pulse
(smaller
side lobes)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Fourier analysis may be used to see the

bandwidth of the seismic data in a given portion
of the data.
• Amplitude spectrum on left shows a broad

bandwidth, rich in high frequencies
• Spectrum on right is irregular and abruptly truncated
at about 45 Hz. Data were fi ltered post-stack as a noise
ALI BAKR reduction exercise.
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
What is the dominant frequency of the seismic data in the

interval between 1500 and 1600 ms? If the velocity is 5000 m/s,
what is the tuning thickness? If it is possible to detect a bed
down to 1/16 of the wavelength, what would that be?
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Dominant frequency:
about 4 ½ cycles in 100 ms
= 45 cycles/second = 45 Hz
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Tuning thickness:
Frequency = 45 Hz, Velocity = 5000 m/s
Wavelength = 5000/45 = 111 m
Tuning thickness = ¼ x 111 = 28 m
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Horizontal Resolution
• Horizontal Resolution is the ability to map lateral changes in reservoir –

edges and internal structures.
• Seismic energy is reflected from a patch rather than a point. Migration

collapses this patch and improves resolution.
• Prior to migration horizontal resolution is poor
• Horizontal resolution can approach vertical resolution if ‘aperture’ is

adequate
• The wider the aperture the closer the horizontal resolution approaches
the vertical resolution
• Other seismic processes can also reduce lateral resolution
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Horizontal Resolution Fresnel Zone
Seismic Energy Reflects from a Patch, not a Point
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Lateral resolution described by Fresnel Zone

Seismic data image (“illuminate”) an area, rather than a single point
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Fresnel zone diameter (F) depends upon:

• Average velocity (v)
• Two-way travel time (t) F = v (t/f)1/2
• Dominant frequency (f)
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Migration collapses diffractions and gives us horizontal resolution

To do this properly we need to record the whole diffraction
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
• Fresnel Zone example:

v = 2440 m/s
f = 25 Hz
t=2s
F = v (t/f)1/2
= 2440*(1/25) 1/2
= 488 m
ALI BAKR
2- SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
ALI BAKR
Interpretation Workflow
Regional
Study
Structural mapping
Review-QC Borehole to Surface
Data Seismic Match Seismic reservoir
property Geomodelling
Seismic Horizon and mapping
Fault interpretation DHI/Seis. Attributes
/Inversion Analysis
Velocity Time/Depth/Attribute/
Modelling Reservoir Property Properties integration
Mapping
Time to Depth
Peer Review
Conversion Volumetric / Spatial
Distribution Analysis
Report
ALI BAKR
Basic Structural Geology Background
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
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Fault Classes
27
0
Fault Classes09
0
DIP-SLIP OBLIQUE-SLIP STRIKE-

Pitch = 90 Pitch = 45”E” SLIP
Pitch = 0
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Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
Listir Planner
c s
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BASIN ANALYSIS
Contine
nt
Rifting
Passive Margin
Active Margin
Island arc
Collision
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Plate Tectonic conceptual model of basin evolution
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
L L
 A
t A
L’
T = 30 KM (CONTINENTAL)
L’ > L
T > t  CRUSTAL THINING
β=L’ /L= T/ t (streching
ALI BAKR factor)
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
LISTRIC FAULT MODEL
BASIN
LISTRIC FAULT
ALI BAKR
SHEARING STRESS
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
PLANAR FAULT MODEL
ALI BAKR
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE BLOCK ROTATION

MODEL
BASIN RANGE
PLANAR FAULT
BLOCK ROTATION
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SHEARING STRESS
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Only on gravitational structures…not

tectonics?
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Fault Classes
Planner or
Listric
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
listri
c
or
planar
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Fault Classes
Footwall
uplift
Picking
faults on
seismic
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Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
Fault-scarp
degradation
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Fault Classes
Eroded crest
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Fault Classes
Talus at foot
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Fault Classes
Then banked in with

sediment
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
False fault
pick
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Various Folds
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Various Folds (cont'd)
ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Axi
s
AA
ALLLII Axial plane near axis should be close to
BB
BAAAKK KR
RR
horizontal
Fault Movement Indicators
Cross section analysis
Example 1: Onlap
Active faulting and uplift

during deposition
Syn-faulting strata
ALI BAKR
Example 2: Offset beds of

equal thickness
Faulting post deposition
Pre-faulting strata
ALI BAKR
SW NE
AA
ALLLII
BB
BAAAKK KR
RR
0.5 mile
100 ms
Offset onlap:
1. 3R>1R
2. 3R>BRR
ALI BAKR
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
MYA4-A
Wilhelm
Calitroleum
500 ms
BRR
McDonald
1 mile
Isochore: line drawn through points of equal

ALI BAKR
vertical (apparent) thickness of a
unit
Two Signatures:
1. Close contours
A’ a)
A fault cut
’ interval
at time
(syn
tectonic)
A
2. Thin beds Structural high

A’
b) fault below
interval
(syn tectonic)
c) c) filled in
paleo high
(post
tectonic)
ALI BAKR
Fault Classes
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
Fault
Free
Fault
Related
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
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Hydrocarbon Traps
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
Tra Pool
p
Over flowing point or spill point Closure oil/gas column
height oil/gas area
Closure area oil-water/gas-oil contact
Note: All measurements are in 3D space. All pools are in traps, but not
all traps could be pools.
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
 Spill point: the lowest point at which hydrocarbon may be contained in the trap. A trap may or may
not be full to the spill plane.
 Closure: the vertical distance from crest (the highest point of the trap, or culmination) to spill
plane.
 Oil-water contact (OWC): the deepest level of producible oil.
 Gas-oil contact (GOC) or gas-water contact (GWC): the lower limit of producible gas.
ALI BAKR
Hydrocarbon Traps
pool
Height of gas
gas
Cap rock
oil Height of oil
Height of closure
trap
Reservoir rock Spill point
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Basic Inversion Terminology
Modified from William 1996
ALI BAKR
Horst -Graben Inversion -Southern North Sea
South Hewett Fault
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Horst -Graben Inversion -Southern North Sea
South Hewett Fault
ALI BAKR
Seismic Interpretation
To Interpret:
Structure
Stratigraphy
Lithology
Fractures
Pressure
Pore Fluid
3D
Seismic
CubeSubsurface Reservoirs
Predict and Characterize
ALI BAKR
Automated Structural Interpretation
Horizons Ant-track
Faults
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Automated Structural Interpretation
Guidance for accurate fault

interpretation
Combined visualisation of Dip-

Azimuth and Fault Enhancement
attributes.
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Wells are proven
not to be in
communication.
ALI BAKR
Initial Check List
• Seismic data vintage (acquisition year)?

– Acquisition report
• Processing sequence, type (PSTM, PSDM, etc.)?
– Processing report
• Source of data (tape, project backup) and format?
– 8-, 16-, 32-bit data? Have any AGC, Time gain filters, been
applied? Amplitude fidelity?
• Overall data quality:
– Good for structural interpretation?
– Good for stratigraphic interpretation?
– Good for reservoir characterization?
• Can we see fluid effects, lithology, both?
• Which phase and polarity?
• Dominant frequency at reservoir level and expected
resolution?
• Well tie analysis?
• Existing seismic picks and interpretation review (time and
ALI BAKR depth)
Initial Questions
Migration Type?
Time Migration Depth Migration
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Digitization of Geophysical Data
• Dynamic range:
If digital sampling ranges from 1 to 256 units of amplitude:

20log10 (256)  48 dB
The number of bits in each word determines the data

dynamic range:
8-bit = 28 = 256
16-bit = 216 = 65536 20log10 (65536)  96 dB
32-bit = 232 = 4,…109  192 dB
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Filtering
Smoothing filter, improves signal to noise ratio for interpretation

purpose, but removes discontinuities, potential faults…
Amplitude Dip guided Gaussian Filter

ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
AGC effect on data: good for interpretation and bad for attributes
and reservoir characterization
OKRriginal
ALI BA
Time Gain AGC
Amplitude filter
3D Data Load QC
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Footprints
Acquisition/Processing
Acquisition/Processing
footprints
fooprints
Reefs
Shallow Area Reef
Buildups
0 ms
0 ms
ALI BAKR
Shallow time slice on Variance cube
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Footprints
RMS Amplitude
Strong processing artifacts indicating poor
amplitude fidelity
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretation: Good
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
3D Data Comparison
2000 Processed 1984-Processing Seismic Results
Shift between the 1984 and the 2000 Surveys

ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Polarity and Phase
Using this convention, in a seismic section displayed with SEG normal polarity
we would expect:
• A reflecting boundary to appear as a trough in the seismic trace if Z2 > Zl
• A reflecting boundary to appear as a peak in the seismic trace if Z2 < Zl
(a) minimum- and

(b)zero-phase
wavelets at an
acoustic-impedance
boundary with a
positive reflection
coeffi cient
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Ideal Vertical Resolution
V(m/sec) F(Hz)  to 

(m)
2000 50 20-10
3000 40 38-19
4000 30 66-33
5000 20 125-62.5
V
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave = 
  f
Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and
f is the dominant frequency in Hz
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Vertical Resolution and Tuning Thickness
Zero phase
wavelets
Tuning separation
in time = 1/2 of the wavelet period
in depth = T X interval velocity

T 2
Example:
If  T = .020 Sec
and Vint = 6000’/Sec
the tuning thickness is 60 feet
ALI BAKR
Initial Questions
Borehole to seismic tie
• Quality of check
shot data?
• Phase?
•Match with surface
seismic?
• Any stretch and
squeeze?
•Position of markers
versus seismic
picks?
Time DT RHOB AI RC
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Wavelet
Review of Well Tie
Synthetics in time domain
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Review of Well Tie
Synthetics in time domain
New Time-Depth
Updated well tie

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Review of Well Tie
Borehole to 3D seismic
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Review of Well Tie
Checkshot Data
Outlier
well
Horizon 2 outlier
maker
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Do’s and Don’ts
Borehole to seismic tie
ALI BAKR
Review of Seismic Interpretation
Picks in time/depth domain
•Consistency between inlines

and cross-lines picks?
•Signal consistency (peak,

trough, zero-crossing)
•Auto-tracking or manual, or
combination of both?
•Geological consistency
(isochrone, isochore)?
ALI BAKR
Picks in time/depth domain
Vertical exag. 7.5x
Examples of inconsistencies between inlines and cross-

lines picks and impact on time grid
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Structural consistency
•Starting from key/strong

horizons, here coal level.
•Is the interpretation

structurally
meaningful/flawless?
•Look at the fault throws and

their vertical evolution along
fault planes
• Understand the big picture

first
AA
ALLLII
BB
BAAAKK KR
RR
Review of Velocity Modelling
and Depth Conversion
Well velocity
(checkshots)
Original stacking
velocity
Evaluate the need for calibration of stacking velocity

ALI BAKR
Review of Velocity Modeling
and Depth Conversion
Marker Depth Old Model Residual (m)
Well
T -2612.46 -2512.62 -99.8408
U -2727.96 -2631.32 -96.6397
V -2838.46 -2743.55 -94.9091
W -2884.56 -2791.08 -93.4754
AA-1
X -2922.96 -2838.74 -84.2182
•Review depth
Y -3015.8 -2930.85 -84.9545 residuals before well
Z -3073.45 -2994.24 -79.2136
correction is applied
ZZ -3144.13 -3065.24 -78.8872
•It provides a direct
T -2623.88 -2506.14 -117.745
indication of the
U -2736.98 -2622.13 -114.85
velocity model quality
V -2843.4 -2733.7 -109.695
W -2890.87 -2783.39 -107.485
AB-1
X -2928.84 -2830.8 -98.0448
Y -3017.93 -2914.42 -103.508
Z -3076.67 -2980.04 -96.6268
ZZ -3148.31 -3053.87 -94.4429
ALI BAKR
Data Review Completed
• Highlighted where to focus interpretation efforts and attention

(minimize valuable mouse clicks)
• What data is ok to use for either further:
– Depth conversion
– Geomodeling
• Identified data that revision/update or interpretation from
scratch
– Go back to essentials (geology, well correlation panels,
geological environment, regional structural style, etc..
– Geology is not limited to well markers!
ALI BAKR
Geologic Correlations
Understand well correlation first at big

picture level guided by key/strong
horizons
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Horizon Selection
•Start with obvious and

most continuous seismic
reflections detected
during panning
•More difficult horizons

are addressed later or
phantomed from key
horizons
• Get the framework

first
ALI BAKR
Structural Interpretation
Traditional Fault
picking
2D on optimal section = perpendicular to fault strike
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Data Conditioning
Data conditioning for structural interpretation
input filtered
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Noise Removal
Edge preserving filtering – Structurally Oriented
Original - Filtered = Difference

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Structural Framework
Screening and Panning of Amplitude data
Inlines, Xlines and Time

ALI BAKR
slices
Screening and Panning of Amplitude data
Random sections orthogonal to fault

ALI BAKR planes
Screening of Amplitude data
Volume rendering with

ALI BAKR transparency
Screening of Amplitude data
Volume rendering with transparency

ALI BAKR
Screening of Dip and Azimuth Volumes
Time slice on Azimuth

ALI BAKR
Screening of Dip and Azimuth Volumes
Time slice on Dip

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Screening of Edge Enhancement Attributes
Time slice on Variance

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Interpretation- Structural Mapping
Fault
markers
Fault
sticks
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Fault
markers
Fault
sticks
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Modeled Fault plane
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Screening of Structural Framework
Auto-tracking time structural
map
•Transfer low level,

repetitive tasks to the
workstation such as
auto-tracking
• Maximise the value

of a mouse click!!!!
3D Auto-tracking will reveal data quality and

AA interpretation
ALL
L II issues to be addressed
BB
BAAAKK KR
RReventually
QC Your Horizon Picks
In 2D and 3D Views
1X vertical 10X vertical

exaggeration exaggeration
Looking for mispicks in 3D views using vertical exaggeration
ALI BAKR
In 2D and 3D Views
Looking for bulls eyes and

slope anomalies on
contoured maps
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In 2D and 3D Views
Pick quality and signal

consistency on
instantaneous amplitude
Pick quality and

signal consistency
check on
instantaneous phase
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Velocity Modeling and
Depth conversion
• Check all available

data: Check shots
VSP
Synthetics
Stacking velocities
Geologic tops
correlation
• Select, use and integrate as

needed: Simple TDR from wells
Average interval velocity
Full velocity modelling: wells +
calibrated stacking
Etc..
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Interpretation
Seismic Geomorphology
Crevasse
splay
100 100
m m
channels
TIME SLICE
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Y ATRIBUTOS
Stratal Slice of Amplitud Maps
Reference horizon 1
Time slice
Horizon slice
TWT
Proportional slice
Reference horizon 2
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Interpretation Summary
• QC existing data and interpretation

– Data type, phase, resolution, amplitude, well ties, picks,
etc..
• Beware of noise level, noise removal to support interpretation
• Use the full 3D data and auto-tracker as much as possible
• Use 3D attributes (Dip, Azimuth, Edge Enhancement) and 3D
rendering techniques (geobodies mapping, transparency) for
data screening
• Minimize manual picks and clicks and maximize the use of
the workstation for repetitive low level tasks
• Ensure signal consistent horizon interpretation and
geological consistency before embarking on geofantasy!
• Ensure good tie with wells in time
• Use and integrated all available data
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3- SEISMIC ATTRIBUTES
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Seismic Attributes
• Seismic attributes are all the

information obtained from
seismic data, either by direct
measurements or by logic or
experienced-based
reasoning.
• The main objective of the
attributes is to provide detailed
and accurate information to
the interpreter on structural,
stratigraphic and lithological
parameters of the seismic
prospect.
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Seismic Attributes
• Pre stack:
– Input data is CDP or image gathers
– Have directional (azimuth) and offset related information
– Lots of information that may not be practical in initial or
basic studies
– Contain considerable amounts of data that can be directly
related to fl uid content and fracture orientation.
– AVO, velocities, azimuthal are the most prominent of this
class.
• Post stack
– After data is stacked, these are computed on the trace.
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Seismic Attributes
General Classifi cation
From A.R. Brown

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Seismic Attributes
Some Important Post stack Attributes
Seismic attributes are specific measures of geometric, kinematic, dynamic, or

statistical features derived from seismic data. ‘General’ attributes include:
1) Reflector amplitude,
2) Reflector time
3) Reflector dip and azimuth
4) Complex amplitude and frequency These have a physical
as well as statistical
5) Generalized Hilbert attributes basis!
6) Illumination
7) Edge detection/coherence
8) Spectral decomposition
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Seismic Attributes
Why Seismic Attributes
•Envelope presence of gas (bright spots), thin-bed tuning effects,

lithology changes.
•Phase lateral continuity of refl ectors, bedding configurations.
•Frequency bed thickness, presence of hydrocarbons, fracture
zones.
•Spectral Decomposition bed thickness.
•Coherence faults, fractures, lateral stratigraphic

discontinuities
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Seismic Attributes
• By their computational characteristics:

– Instantaneous Attributes: Computed sample by sample. Trace
envelope, its derivatives, frequency and phase,…
– Wavelet Attributes: Computed at peak of trace envelope and
have a direct relation to the Fourier Transform. Instantaneous
Frequency
– Physical Attributes: Relate to physical qualities. Frequencies
relate to bed thickness, magnitude of trace envelope relates to
impedance contrast.
– Geometrical Attributes: Describe spatial and temporal
relationship of all other attributes. Lateral continuity measured
by semblance is a good indicator of a discontinuity. Assist in the
recognition of depositional patterns and related lithology.
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Seismic Attributes
• By their origin in the wave phenomena, we can also sub-

divide the attributes into two categories:
– Reflective Attributes:
• Attributes corresponding to the characteristics of
interfaces.
• All instantaneous and wavelet attributes can be
included under this category.
• Pre-stack attributes such as AVO are also reflective
attributes,
– Transmissive Attributes
• Relate to the characteristics of a bed between two
interfaces (all physical attributes)
• Interval, RMS and average velocities, Q, absorption
and dispersion come under this category.
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Attributes Interpretation
Objectives:
– Recognize an hydrocarbon anomaly or lithology
– Validate anomalies, revealing the relation rock-seismic
Methodology:
• Assume a model
• Compute or evaluate the response to the model at known locations
• Compare response of model to actual data
• Verification in new areas or intervals
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Seismic Attributes
• Seismic attributes:
– Properties of the seismic trace when thought of as an
analytic (complex) trace with both real and imaginary parts
Quadratu
re:
imaginary part
seismic trace from
Hilbert transform
Real:
conventional
seismic
trace
Hilbert transform complex trace from the Real seismic trace

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Seismic Attributes
• Instantaneous seismic attributes are derived from the actual seismic

data
• Quality of attributes is dependent on signal consistent interpretation
(grid based)
• Used as both seismic display (seismic sections), as maps (grids) and
volumes
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Why do we generate Seismic Attributes ?
• Enhance structural and stratigraphic features for the interpreter on

seismic sections
• Enhance structural and stratigraphic features on maps
• Locate misinterpretation
• Get information on lithology, facies or fluid content
• Correlate with other properties
reservoir characterisation
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Display and use of Seismic Attributes
• Seismic Amplitude:
– Trace’s amplitude value at the horizon time/depth
– Identify bright spots/dim spots
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• Reflection Strength/Envelope:
– Total envelope of energy at any instant along the trace
– High reflection strength is often associated with major change in
acoustic impedance due to lithology, fl uid content (gas), or
stratigraphy.
Seismic trace
Envelope
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• Quadrature Amplitude:
– Imaginary part of the complex seismic trace
– Used in conjunction with other attributes to identify
bright spots
Seismic trace
Quadrature trace
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• The Trace Envelope is a physical attribute and it can be used as an

effective discriminator for the following characteristics:
– Reflectivity, since mainly represents the acoustic impedance
contrast
– Bright spots, possible gas accumulation,
– Sequence boundaries,
– Thin-bed tuning effects
– Major changes in depositional environment,
– Spatial correlation to porosity and other lithologic variations,
– Indicates the group, rather than phase component of the
seismic wave
propagation.
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• Instantaneous Phase
– Description of the phase angle at any instant along a
trace
– Independent of amplitude
Expresses the degree of

lateral continuity or
discontinuity of seismic
refl ections, pinchouts,
angular unconformities,
thickening and
thinning zones, offlap,
onlap, and makes weak
coherent refl ection
clearer.
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• Cosine of Phase:
– Cosine function applied to the instantaneous phase
(+/-1)
May enhance definition of

structural delineation
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• Instantaneous Frequency:
– Time derivative of the phase
– Low: 0 to 1/2 of the Nyquist
Frequency
Helps in correlating
refl ection along
seismic section and
highlights low
frequency anomalies
below HC
accumulations
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• Apparent Polarity:
– Sign of the seismic trace where refl ection strength has
a local maximum value (+1 or -1)
May help distinguish

different kinds of bright
spots (due to gas,
limestone..)
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• Response Phase:
– Calculates the instantaneous phase when the
refl ection strength has its maximum
Alternate way of displaying

instantaneous attributes, less
subject to noise since
computed where seismic
trace has maximum energy
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• Sweetness:
– Sweetness is the Envelope
(Reflection Strength) divided
by the square root of the
Instantaneous Frequency.
Variance
It can sometimes help in

delineating subtle discontinuities
Sweetness
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• Bump mapping:
– Uses illumination and shading to add another dimension to the
normal rendering of the data
This display allows

enhancing of very subtle
structural features, like
small fault patterns
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Too many attributes…highly correlated
Common amplitude
attributes
computed in a
100ms window
Barnes,
2006
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• Derivatives:
– First derivative calculates the slope of the tangent of
the selected seismic amplitude (QC interpretation on
zero crossing)
– Second derivative measures the variation in the tangents of
the selected seismic amplitude, directly above and below the
refl ection. High values indicate rapid shift from peak to
trough (short wavelength)
amplitude 1st derivative 2nd derivative

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• Application of Amplitude first and second
derivatives:
Second derivative can be

Original amplitude
used to help guiding the
pick by providing continuity
in areas of where reflections
are poorly resolved on the
raw amplitude.
Second derivative
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• Band pass filtering:
Original amplitude
High pass > 25 Hz
High pass > 35 Hz
AA
ALLLII
BB
BAAAKK KR
RR
Display of Attributes
AGC effect on data: good for interpretation and bad for attributes and
reservoir characterization
Original Time AGC

Amplitude
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• Heterogeneity:
• Curve length of the function within an interval for the given attribute
• Shows the heterogeneic nature of any internal reflector in a given
volume
Low heterogeneity High heterogeneity
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Local Attributes
Upper Loop Upper Loop

Duration Area
Lower Loop Lower Loop

Duration Area
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Local Attributes
Seismic section crossing

high Upper Loop Area
values
ALLLII
BB
BAA AKK
KR
RR
Local Attributes
Upper Loop Area
Seismic Amplitude
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• Surface based attribute maps:

– Extracted along or close to an interpreted
surface
Extracted along
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or
close to a
surface
• Volume based attribute maps:

– Calculated in a time/depth
window:
– Between two interpreted
surfaces
– Below/above/around an
interpreted surface
Extracted in between two

surfaces or within a constant
time window
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• Grid based attribute

maps:
– Derived directly
from seismic
interpretation,
independent of
seismic amplitude
data
– Dip, Azimuth,
Curvature,
Illumination, Edge,
etc…
Courtesy of Norsk Hydro

Dip map Carbonate Buildups, Barents Sea
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Seismic Attributes and Reservoir Characterisation
• Combining attributes:
-cross-plotting of attributes against reservoir property of
interest using well data
-selection of the ones that correlate best
-statistics helps defining attribute contribution to the variance
-resultant attributes used in geostatistical kriging to interpolate
the reservoir property between wells (RAVE, LPM).
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Geometric Attributes, Looking for Similarity
in Seismic Data
• Geometric attributes - Stratigraphic attributes – Multi-
trace attributes
• 4 families of multi-trace attributes:

– Dip/azimuth – measures refl ector shape
– Texture attributes
– Discontinuity – measures waveform similarity
– Amplitude – measure lateral changes in impedance
contrast
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Geometric Attributes
– Dip/azimuth – measures reflector shape

• Components of vector dip
• Gradient
• Curvature
• Rotation
– Texture attributes
• Chaos
• Flatness
• Divergence
• Dip Histogram
• Gabor Filter bank
• Volume reflection
– Spectral (VRS)
Discontinuity – measures waveform similarity
decomposition
• Cross correlation coherence
• Semblance and variance
• Principal component coherence
• Principal projected gradient
– Amplitude – measure lateral changes in impedance contrast
• Amplitude gradients
• Cohereny energy gradients
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Pre- and Post-Conditioning:

Gaussian low-pass smoothing filter
Gaussian dip-guided filter / Layer-Parallel Smoothing
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• Pre- and Post-Conditioning:

– Gaussian dip-guided filter / Layer-Parallel
Smoothing
Amplitude Dip guided Gaussian Filter

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• Dip and Azimuth:
 Calculate local  Estimate the covariance Perform principal

gradient matrix of the gradient component analysis:
vectors Dominating orientation
PCA is a time expensive dip computation, other methods exist such as Event dip and Gradient dip
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• Dip and Azimuth:
Dip from instantaneous

Dip from estimated event local gradient vector Dip from PCA (0 to 90)
(0 to 90) (-90 to 90)
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Looking for Similarity
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Coherence Attributes
Example Results
Coherency
as it is most
commonly
displayed;
as time-
slices
C1
C1 – correlation
C2 – semblance
C3 – eigenstruct.
C2 C3
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Example Results
C1 C1 – correlation
Coherency as it is less commonly displayed; as vertical slices
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Example Results
C2 C2 – semblance
We clearly see the effect of the vertical window…
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Example Results
C3 C3 –
eigenstruct.
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Example Results
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3D Automated Fault Mapping
Ant Tracking: Results
Seismic Varianc Chaos Ant track

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Ant Tracking
Biology lesson
Nest Food
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Ant Tracking
Biology lesson: swarm intelligence
Nest Food
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Ant Tracking
Biology lesson: swarm intelligence
Nest Food
Conclusion:“Dumb” ants do smart things!
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Automated Fault Mapping
Ant Tracking
Ant Track Cube

Fault Attribute
Seismic
Fault System Analysis Ant Track Faults
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Fault Attribute vs. Ant Tracking
Time slice
Variance Ant track
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• Dip/azimuth – measure refl ector orientation

• Partial derivatives of Dip enable to compute curvature (change of
dip as a function of azimuth)
• 2D Curvature:
Curvature calculated along picked horizons

1. pick horizon
2. smooth horizon
3. calculate curvature on tight grid for short wavelength estimates
4. smooth horizon some more
5. calculate curvature on coarse grid for long wavelength
estimates
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Curvature Attributes
 Defi nition of curvature

 Second-order derivative of
curve
 Curvature describes how

bent a curve is at a
particular point on the
curve
Courtesy of Bruce Hart, McGill

Univ.
( Roberts, 2001 )
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2D Curvature Attributes
Basement faults Drainage system on

basement
N-S trend of
distinctive scarp
and dip slopes
geomorphology
Sinkhole
Deep Canyons related to

drainage system
Courtesy of Bruce
Hart, McGill Univ.
CurvZ:
Negative
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(Concave up)
(short length
Variance
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Time slice at
680ms
3D Mean Curvature
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Time slice at
680ms
3D Maximum Curvature
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Time slice at
680ms
3D Minimum Curvature
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Time slice at
680ms
Seismic Attributes
Some Important Post stack Attributes (Volume Attributes)

• Post-stacked attributes ( i.e. not AVO or Velocity) can be calculated as a volume, as a
slice, in a time window, or along a horizon .
– The volume can be displayed and interpreted like any other cube of data…
however most interpretation packages include the ability to transform the data by
slice
– The window can be a constant flat time interval, hung from a structurally
interpreted horizon or between two horizons
– Horizon attributes are normally calculated and extracted from a data
volume following automatic spatial tracking or snapping.
• Time derived attributes are very helpful for checking your interpretation. If you use
auto-tracking a lot then this step is especially important.
• While most horizon attributes are from near the structural top of the reservoir do
not
forget that attributes from below the reservoir can also give you valuable
information -
i.e. the gas shadow zone
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Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Attributes
• When considered as an analytical signal a seismic trace can be expressed as a
complex function such as u(t)=x(t)+iy(t) where x(t) is the recorded trace itself
and y(t) is its quadrature (a 90 degree phase-shifted version of the recorded
trace).
• There are 3 instantaneous attributes
– Amplitude which is proportional to the square root of the of the total
energy of the signal at an instant in time and is used to identify bright
and dim spots.
– Phase which is a measure of continuity and is used to delineate features

such as pinchouts, onlaps, and prograding reflectors.
– Frequency which is the time rate of change of instantaneous phase and

can help identify condensate and gas reservoirs, which tend to attenuate
high frequencies
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Seismic Attributes
Input Trace with envelope
Quadrature trace with envelope
Instantaneous Phase
Instantaneous Frequency
Envelope attribute also called

instantaneous amplitude or
reflection strength Frequency
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Seismic Attributes
• Four “principal” volume

Post Stack attributes.
• Reflection strength,
instantaneous phase and
instantaneous frequency are
“complex-trace” attributes
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Dr ALI
BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Amplitude
• Amplitude provides information on :
– Sediments and their fluids by virtue of their velocity density contrst.
– Amplitude change suggest changes in the nature of rocks and fluids (oil,gas
and water).
– Commonly used amplitude based indicators, in hydrocarbon industry
industry , are Bright spots, Dim spots, and Flat spots.
Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes.
Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid saturation.
Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors can cause changes in
seismic amplitude.
It only takes a small amount of gas to generate an impressive looking bright spot;
not all are associated with commercial accumulations of hydrocarbon. Conformity
between structure contours and the limits of a high-amplitude area is often
considered to be an indication that the amplitudes are related to the presence of
hydrocarbons (a bright spot).
However, this correspondence will only be observed if:
the sand is continuous (not compartmentalized by stratigraphic or structural
features),
there are no hydrodynamic factors that tilt the fluid contact.
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Seismic Attributes
• Amplitude provides information on :
– Sediments and their fluids by virtue of their velocity density contrst.
– Amplitude change suggest changes in the nature of rocks and fluids (oil,gas
and water).
– Commonly used amplitude based indicators, in hydrocarbon industry
industry , are Bright spots, Dim spots, and Flat spots.
• Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes.

Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid
saturation. Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors can
cause changes in seismic amplitude.
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Seismic Attributes
• Bright spot : It is associated with strong amplitude contrast

across lithologies and their fluid (oil, gas and water)
content.
• Dim spot: It is associated with weak amplitude contrast

across
lithologies and their fluid (oil, gas and water) content.
• Flat spot: Associated with fluid contact.
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Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Phase
• It is phase independent of
amplitude, and its values
are in degrees and range
from +180 to -180. Because
instantaneous phase
contains no amplitude
information, it is
commonly used to examine
reflection (i.e.,
stratigraphic) continuity;
changes in amplitude along
a reflection can sometimes
give the impression of
lateral discontinuity.
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Dr ALI
BAKR
Seismic Attributes
• Instantaneous frequency is the

rate of change of phase. Its
values are in cycles/second
(Hertz).
• Instantaneous frequency is
useful for detecting tuning
effects (although peak frequency
occurs at a different thickness
than for tuning of seismic
amplitude), fractures, gas (see
next slide) and other features.
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Seismic Attributes
Can be used to detect gas however is not really reliable because it

tends to be noisy
• Arc Length
– total length of the seismic trace over a time window

– increase in amplitude gives more trace length as well as
oscillation caused by increased frequency hence is really a
composite of amplitude and frequency
– can be used to map depositional facies
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OGCI - SER - 23
Attributes Intro thru 2
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Bright Spot
Gas SS
Bright Spot
The Sag
Not all Bright Spot prospects are as obvious as this simple model,
but the idea is the same, and most are as subtle as a migraine.
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Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Dim Spot
Frequently, an increase
V (high �)
in porosity, � � > 0,
V (low �)
perhaps accompanied by
a pore fl uid change to
hydrocarbons, leads to a
decrease in the
impedance of an
otherwise high
impedance rock – such
as a carbonate or older
SS.
Note the high amplitude Dim Spot
exit event - with a time
sag caused by the lower
velocity in the porous
zone
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Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Dim Spot
Generalized curves showing how the
acoustic impedances of gas sand, water
sand and shales increase with depth.
Bright spot occurs above depth A, where is
large contrast in and gas-sand impedances
but a modest diff erence between shale and
water –sand impedances.
Polarity reversals occur between depths A
and B, where water –sand impedance is
greater than shale impedance but gas-sand
impedance is less than shale impedance.
Dim spot occur below depth B, where the
three impedance curves converge and there
are only samll impedance contrasts
between shale and either type of sand,
brine-fi lled or gas –filled.
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Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
Z
Old and venerable, the Gas
Water
flat spot, resulting
from gas-water contact Salt
reflections, is still
widely used in
T
exploration and
development.
Note that the flat spot is

tilted on the time section.
Why?
Z The flat spot has regained it
flaticity when converted to depth.
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Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
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3-Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
Modified from Brown, 1996
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Seismic Attributes
Data specification needed for Attributes

• For 8-bit data, amplitudes theoretically range from
±128, 16-bit data theoretically range from ± 32,768 and
32-bit data range from ± 4,294,967,296. 32- and 16-bit
data have more dynamic range than 8-bit data, but take
up correspondingly more amounts of storage space.
• You should work with 16- or 32-bit data when doing

quantitative attribute analyses.
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Seismic Attributes
Attributes Combination
• Attributes may be combined with each other

– E.g., amplitude-weighted phase
• This helps to combine their effects
• Although simple linear correlations between a physical

property and an attribute are sometimes found, relationships
are more often non-linear (e.g., Hart and Chen, 2004) and more
than one attribute is needed predict the physical property of
interest
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Seismic Attributes
Attributes Combination
Amplitude Coherency
Multiplying coherency
(semblance) by amplitude makes
structural and stratigraphic
features more distinctive - in this
case fault arrays and
meandering turbidities channels Amplitude Coherency
[Shiehallion].
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Dr ALI
BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
1. Identify horizon of interest
2. Pick horizon on a selected grid of lines
3. Pick all intermediate traces using an automatic
picking algorithm
4. Extract horizon attributes:
• Time
• Amplitude
• Dip
• Azimuth
• Combined dip/azimuth
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Dip & Azimuth
• Dip/azimuth cubes only show relative changes in dip and azimuth,
since we do not in general have an accurate time to depth conversion
• Dip/azimuth estimated using a vertical window in general provide

more robust estimates than those based on picked horizons
• Dip/azimuth volumes form the basis for volumetric curvature,

coherence, and structurally-oriented filtering
• Dip/azimuth will be one of the key components for future computer-

aided 3-D seismic stratigraphy
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Dip& Azimuth (Rijks and Jauffred, 1991)
Time Dip Azimuth

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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Horizon Amplitude Extraction (Rijks and Jauffred, 1991)
0.8
0.9
top
base
t (s)
2 km
1.0
1 km
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Amplitude Keyed to a Horizon or
Sequence
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Seismic Attributes
Attributes Extractions
• Understand the polarity of your data. If necessary, convert it to zero phase.
• Tie expected reservoir response from logs to seismic.
• Pick top and bottom of reservoir using autotracking of peaks and troughs.
• Picking the top of a stratigraphic unit is usually more indicative of the sequence than the bottom.
• Composite amplitude partially compensates for adjacent acoustic impedances adjacent to the top
and bottom of the reservoir by ‘stacking’ the absolute value of the refl ectivity at the top and
bottom.
• Be sure to annotate your amplitude extractions!

• Polarity
• Off set above or below picked horizon
• Measure (e.g. composite, top, bottom, average absolute value, etc)
• Window length (if any)
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
A measure of trace to trace similarity of the seismic
wavform
within a samll analysis window.
inline inline
Coherence compares the waveforms of neighboring traces

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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Why we use Coherency
• Excellent tool for delineating geological boundaries

(faults,l ateral stratigraphic contacts, etc).
• Allows accelerated evaluation of larg data sets.
• Provided quantitative estimate of fault /fracture presence.
• Often enhance stratigraphic information
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Coherency data volume
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Seismic Time Slice
Coherence Time Slice
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attributes
Seismic Time Slice
Coherence Time Slice
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Slice
Advantages Disadvantages
• Focuses on reservoir or other • Analysis limited to only a
zone of interest
few discreet horizons, which
• Illuminates depositional are time consuming to pick
environment at a fixed geologic
• Analysis limited to the
time
• Avoids low coherence extent of the interpreted
“structural horizon
leakage” due to steep dip • Picking errors can bias the
• Steers coherence calculation result or create artifacts
along an interpreter-defi ned • Some geological surfaces
dip/azimuth, resulting in simply cannot be
generally sharper contact characterized by peaks,
images
troughs, or zero crossings
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Seismic Attributes
Time Slice
Advantages Disadvantages
• Focuses on reservoir or • Analysis limited to only a
other zone of interest
few discreet horizons, which
• Illuminates depositional are time consuming to pick
environment at a fixed geologic
time • Analysis limited to the
• Avoids low coherence “structural extent of the interpreted
leakage” due to steep dip horizon
• Steers coherence calculation • Picking errors can bias the
along an interpreter-defi ned result or create artifacts
dip/azimuth, resulting in • Some geological surfaces
generally sharper contact simply cannot be
images
characterized by peaks,
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troughs, or zero crossings
Seismic Attributes
Coherence volumes
Coherence on a time slice Coherence along structure
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Seismic Attributes
y
Spectral Decomposition 3-D Seismic Volume
z
x
Uses the discrete Fourier transform to: Interpret

• quantify thin-bed interference, y
x
and Interpreted z
3-D Seismic Volume
• detect subtle discontinuities.
Subset
y
Zone-of-Interest x
z
Subvolume
Compute
y
Zone-of-Interest x
fre
Tuning Cube
q
(cross-section Animate
view) y
Frequency Slices x
fre
through Tuning Cube
q
(plan view)
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Seismic Attributes
y
Spectral Decomposition 3-D Seismic Volume
z
x
Interpret
y
Interpreted
x
z
3-D Seismic Volume
Subset
Tuning Cube
y
y
x Zone-of-Interest x
fre z
q Subvolume
Compute
y
Zone-of-Interest x
fre
y
Multiply y Add y Tuning Cube
x x x q
(cross-section
fre
q
fre
q + fre
q
view)
Animate
Thin Bed Interference Seismic Wavelet Noise y
Frequency Slices x
fre
through Tuning Cube
q
(plan view)
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Seismic Attributes
Spectral Decomposition
y
x
freq Tuning Cube
Split Spectral Tuning Cube

into Discrete Frequencies
Frequency Slices Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Frequency 3 Frequency 4 Frequency n

through Tuning Cube y y y y y
(plan view) x x x x x
Independently Normalize
Each Frequency Map
Spectrally Balanced Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Frequency 3 Frequency 4 Frequency n

Frequency Slices
through Tuning Cube y y y y y
x x x x x
(plan view)
Gather Discrete Frequencies

into Tuning Cube
y
Spectrally Balanced
fxreq Tuning Cube
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Real Data Example
Offshore Africa
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI
BAKR
spectral decomposition
80ms analysis window
centred 80ms
above a picked
horizon
Red = 60hz amplitude

Green = 50hz amplitude
Blue = 40hz amplitude
hrz - 120ms
hrz -
040ms
Courtesy of Lantz, Aluvihare and Partyka

80ms analysis window
centred 40ms
above a picked
horizon
Red = 60hz amplitude

Green = 50hz amplitude
Blue = 40hz amplitude
hrz - 080ms
hrz -
000ms

60hz amplitude
analysis window = 80ms
Centred:
80ms above the picked
hrz 40ms above the
picked hrz 00ms above
the picked hrz oldest
youngest
higher lower
Red
Green
hrz Blue

Seismic Attributes
Real Data Example
Gulf of Mexico , Pleistocene
age equivalent
Of modern day Mississippi
River Delta
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Dr ALI
BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel “A”
Fault-Controlled
Channel
Amplitud
Point e
1
Bar
0
Channel N
“B” analysis window length =
Gulf of Mexico 10,000
ft 100ms
Example
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel “A”
Fault-Controlled
Channel
Amplitud
Point e
1
Bar
0
Channel N
“B” analysis window length =
Gulf of Mexico 10,000
ft 100ms
Example
ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel
“A”
North-South Extent Fault-Controlled
of Channel “A” Channel
Amplitud
Delineation Point e
1
Bar
0
Channel “B” N
Gulf of Mexico 10,000 analysis window length =
ft 100ms
Example
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4- AVO
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Factors Affecting Amplitudes
Instrument Balance
Superimpose Geophone
d Noise Sensitivity &
Coupling
Source
Strength, Interference of Array Directivity
Coupling and different Events
Directivity
Peg-Leg multiples
from thin reflectors Scattering
Spherical
divergence
Absorption
Reflector Curvature
Reflection Variation of and rugosity
Reflection
coefficient Coeffi cient with
Incident Angle
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AVO
AVO definition
The variation in the amplitude of a seismic refl ection with
source-geophone distance. Depends on the velocity, density
and Poisson ratio contrast. Used as a hydrocarbon
indicator for gas because a large change in Poisson’s ratio
(as may occur when the pore fluid is a gas) tends to produce
an increase in amplitude with offset.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO
AVO Assumptions
• AVO Assumption • Seismic Processing
• No seismic attenuation • Q compensation
• No transmission loss • Gain function
• No wavelet interference (tuning) •
Broad amplitude spectrum
• Remove wavelet
• Zero-phase data
• Amplitude vs angle() • Pre-stack migration
• Map offset to angle, 
• Large angles
• Avoid offset mute
• Pre-stack events flattened
•Accurate (high-order) NMO
correction
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO definition
• Amplitude Versus Offset is
a change of refl ectivity with
Offset across a CMP gather.
• It is determined by the P-wave,
S-wave and density contrast at
the interface
• For clastic rocks, these
parameters are dictated by
physical properties such as
porosity, fl uid and
lithology.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
• Seismic waves are refl ected
at a boundary between Layer 1
different rocks
• At normal incidence, incident reflected

1 R
the refl ected wave
has an amplitude R : Z2  Z1
R Z  Layer 2
2
Z1 transmitted
Zi  i  Vi T

 density 
 
• R = 0.1 is a BIG reflection !
ALI BAKR
wavespeed
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
At every reflection in land section - P-

waves that are not exactly at right-
angles to a refl ector partially convert
into S- waves which continue on down
the section refl ecting and refracting.
AVO: is due to partitioning of

the sound energy at interface
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
• The AVO technique for DHI is based on two principles:
1. When Gas replaces brine in reservoir rocks,

Poisson’s Ratio (Vp/Vs) Decreases.
2. When Poisson’s ratio decreases, Rc and
amplitude becomes more negative with
increasing angle.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO /AVA principles
• Change in Incident Angle ->
Change in Amplitude
• Different Offsets, Same Time ->
Different Incident Angles ->
Different Amplitudes
• Same Offset, Different Times ->
Different Incident Angles ->
Different Amplitudes
• Amplitude changes with Offset

AND Time
• Temporal & Spatial change in
velocity complicates the
proceedings!
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO /AVA principles
Angle of incidence decreases with depth for

constant offset trace
Angle of incidence constant for all depths on a
constant
angle trace.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
P-wave & S-Wave
G E C O L
O N G V A
O S LO
Water
Vp = 1500m/s reflected
Vs = 0m/s P wave
incident
P wave
 
Hard Sea-bed
Vp =
2500m/s Vs
transmitted
= 1200m/s
P wave
transmitted
S wave
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Parameters
• P-Wave Velocity - Measured :

– Well logs
– Seismic Velocity Analysis
• Density - Measured :
– Well logs
– Empirically from P-Wave Velocity
• S-Wave Velocity - Difficult to Measure
– P-Wave velocity/S-Wave velocity Ratio
– Poisson's Ratio (Rock Property)
– Multi-component data analysis
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
 Bulk modulus – measure of
Modulus = Stiffness
compressibility of rocks and fl uids
(Stress/Strain  Change in volume, not in shape
Ratio)
Bulk Modulus κ (incompressibility)

Response to Compressive Stress
Change in Pressure
Relative Change in Volume
 Shear modulus – measure

reluctance to change shape
Shear Modulus μ (rigidity)
 Change in shape, not in volume
Response to Shear Stress
Change in Shear Force per unit area
Relative Displacement
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI
BAKR
4-AVO Implications
  4 / 
VP VS

3
 

ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
• At any point in the sub-surface, there are only three independent
acoustic rock properties responsible for seismic reflection :
– Vp,
– Vs,
– density
• All attributes we compute will depend on the the spatial distribution

of the above three properties.
• From these attributes we would like to infer:
– Rock Properties
– Fluid type
– Porosity/Permeability
– Pressure
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio is simply a measure of how much the

cross-section of a rod changes when it is stretched. In a
fluid, doubling the length halves the width (the volume
is retained) which yields a Poisson's ratio of 0.5. A rod
which never got any thinner, regardless of the amount
of stretching applied, would have a Poisson's ratio of
zero. There is a simple relationship between the P-
wave velocity, the S-wave velocity and Poisson's ratio...
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles Poisson’ ratio

W
Relative Change in Width L
σ=
Relative Change in Length
Poisson`s
Ratio σ  S /V P
0.5  V
2

1 VS /VP
Poisson’s ratio is related to VP/VS ratio:
2
1
VP /VS
 0.5
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI 
BAKR
4-AVO Implications

Poisson’s Ratio varies :
 may be thought of as a measure of
Incompressibility 0.0
0.5
 = .4  = .3  = .1
Wet Oil Gas

ALI BAKR
Sand Sand Sand
4-AVO Implications
• The shear modulus of a rock does not change when

the fluid is changed.
• However, the bulk modulus changes significantly
when the fluid changes.
• As such, the p-wave velocity of a rock will change as
hydrocarbon saturation changes whereas the s-
wave velocity will change relatively little (there is a
slight density effect).
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
In basins where the geologic section is relatively young and unconsolidated-

water, oil, and/or gas response may be seen in amplitude studies-DHI’s.
• Gas or light oil can significantly decrease the Acoustic Impedance of

a porous zone versus a brine fill.
• The anomalous amplitude should conform to a trap confi guration.
• The hydrocarbon-water contact may occur as a flat reflection.
• Area and thickness of a seismic hydrocarbon anomaly may be used

for pre-drill volumetric estimates
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes
I II III IV
Top of
Reservo
ir
Offsets Far Near F FN FN

N
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes Class 1 events are
encountered in
high impedance reservoirs.
The
Class 1
High Impedance Reservoirs AVO behavior is a peak

imming that dims.
Dimming
Class 2 events are encountered in
Class 2 near zero impedance reservoirs.
The AVO behavior is a weak peak
Coefficient
Reflection
or trough that brightens to a

Brightening stronger trough at far offsets or
incident angles.
Class 3
Brightening
Class 3 events are encountered
Low Impedance Reservoirs
in low impedance reservoirs.
The AVO behavior is a trough
Incidence that brightens at far offsets or
Angle (offset) incident angles.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes
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4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
If we measure the amplitude of each reflection amplitude as a function of
offset, and plot them on a graph as a function of the sine of angle of incidence
squared, we
observe a straight line. For any line, the intercept and gradient can be
measured. By linearzing the complicated mathematics behind the AVO
technique, Richards and Frasier (1976) and Wiggins et al (1986) gave us the
following physical interpretation of the intercept and gradient:
Intercept A = the P-wave reflection amplitude.
Gradient B = the P-wave reflection amplitude minus twice the S-

wave reflection amplitude.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
When you plot the amplitude of the signal
for a reflector (i.e., horizon) against the offset
of the trace (or the calculated angle that the
corresponding sound wave would make
when it met the reflector), the plot yields the
"Intercept", where the trend of the amplitude
measurements meets the zero-offset line (so
it would be equivalent to a geophone directly
next to the source, and a 90° angle to the
reflector). It also yields the "Gradient", which
is the slope of the curve made by the plot
points. The sums or differences of these
gradients and intercept values can then be B
used for mapping AVO anomalies. A
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Common Angle of
incidence calculated
from smoothed
stacking velocities
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Angle
R()  P + G sin2 
Observed
Linear Fit
slope = G
P
intercept
sin2 
Intercept Gradient
trace
ALI BAKR
trace
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Using the values for VP, VS, and density ρ shown in last
Figure , we can now work out the values for the AVO
intercept and gradient for the wet and gas sands. For the wet
sand, the VP/VS ratio in both the sand and shale layer is
equal to 2. As shown in this leads to the simplification that B
= −A for both the top and base of the layer.
Using the parameters shown in the figure gives: ATOP_WET
= BBASE_WET = +0.1 and ABASE_WET =B TOP_WET = -0.1.
For the gas sand, the VP/VS ratio is equal to 1.65, and the
intercept does not simplify as it did the wet sand.
However, the calculation is still straightforward, and
leads to
ATOP_GAS = BTOP_GAS = -0.1 and ABASE_GAS =
BBASE_GAS = +0.1. Note that, for the gas case, A=B for both
the top and base of the layer.
The AVO curves for the wet and gas cases are shown in figure
4, for an angular aperture of 0º to 30º. It is observed that the
absolute values of the gas sand curves show an increase in
amplitude, whereas the absolute values of the wet sand
curves show a decrease in amplitude. These values do fall
within a reasonable petrophysical range for class 3 anomalies.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
After scaling each of the values of A and B by a factor of 10 (to give values of +1 and -1) they
have been put on an A-B cross plot, as shown in Figure 5. In our example, the wet points
(shown as solid blue circles) establish the wet sand-shale trend, and the top and base gas
(shown as solid red circles) plot in the other two quadrants of the A-B crossplot. This is a
typical class 3 AVO anomaly (Rutherford and Williams, 1989), caused by gas saturation
reducing the sand impedance and the Vp/Vs ratio of the sand encased in the shale.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
• When we introduce gas into a sandstone, VP decreases whereas VS increases slightly
•We will see that this decrease in VP/VS ratio causes a change in relative amplitude that
will vary with angle of incidence.
•By analyzing this variation in amplitude we will try to extract some lithological
information from the data
•Poisson’s Ratio is a useful number to know as it may be a direct hydrocarbon indicator

(DHI)
•S-Waves do not travel in water – they are converted back to P-Waves at the water
boundary
• S-waves are less affected by gas than P-waves
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Seismic Gather
t Amplitud B
e
A
Offset
sin2q
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Compressional Impedance Refl ectivity
Full Stack
Amplitude
AVO Gradient
Section B (Slope)
A(Y Intercept)
AVO Gradient
ALI BAKR sin2q
Section
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Near offset Stack
Full Stack
Far Offset Stack
Amplitude
B(Slope)
A (Y Intercept)
Far Offset Stack
sin2q
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Near offset Stack
Full Stack
Far Offset Stack
Amplitud
B (Slope)
e
A (Y Intercept)
Far Offset Stack
sin2q
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Misconceptions
Myth Reality
• AVO does not work • AVO does work under the right
• Gas-sand amplitude increases circumstances
with offset • Gas-sand reflection coeffi cients
• AVO can not be used to detect oil generally become more negative
sands with increasing of offset.
• AVO does not work in • High GOR light oil-saturated
carbonates rocks may exibit significant AVO
• Land AVO is more difficult than anomalies
marine AVO • There are some applications
• Vp/Vs is 1.6 for brine sands, 1.8 • The marine short-period
for dolomites, 1.9 for limestones, multiples are still a problem
and 2 for shales • Vp/Vs varies significantly
• Rp and Rs are readily extracted • Rp and Rs can be extracted
from R(0) from
R(0) and G if Vp/Vs is
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kbown
5. SEISMIC INVERSION
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Inversion vs Modeling
Logs Synthetic
Wavele
t
Impedance Seismic
Wavelet
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Post-Stack Inversion
Low impedance zone is interpreted as higher porosity
Gtn
ICI Horizontal Georgetown Field
ALI BAKR
Patch Reefs in the Edwards?
ALI BAKR
Interpreting an acoustic impedance inversion for

lithology, porosity and fluids is simular to
interpreting a sonic log without the use of any
other logs. Why do it if there is more information?
ALI BAKR
Glen Rose Reef
ALI BAKR
Terminology and Background
Acoustic Impedance = Velocity X Density

Vp = Velocity of Compressional wave
Vs = Velocity of Shear wave
Vp/Vs ~ Poisson’s ratio
-Acoustic Impedance Inversion is a

technique for measuring the
Impedance of the Earth’s sub-
surface layers from seismic data
-Using Shear and Compressional Velocities, we can estimate

Physical rock properties from seismic data
ALI BAKR
Benefits of 3D Inversion
• Lithology and Fluid Discrimination
• Used for Reservoir Property Prediction
• Best Tool for Reservoir Characterization
• Best Method for Optimized Field Development
• Increased Reflectivity in Shear Volume
• Calibration to Well Data and Rock Properties
• Increased Signal Bandwidth
• Easier to Interpret
ALI BAKR
Rock Property Calibration
Top Reservoir
Laminated
Pay
GWC
AA
ALLLII
BB
BAAAKK KR
RR
Rock Property Summary
• From well calibrations, seismic derived attributes can be used

to
discriminate between the following rock/fl uid classes:
• Clean Gas Sands Low Pwave Impedance, Low Vp/Vs
Ratio
• Clean Water High Pwave Impedance, Intermediate
Sands Ratio
Vp/Vs Reduced Pwave Impedance and
• Laminated Gas Ratio
Sands Vp/Vs Increased Pwave Impedance,
• Shales to higher
Intermediate Vp/Vs Ratio
ALI BAKR
Deliverables
• Acoustic Impedance Volume (Product of Velocity and Density)

– Porosity, Geometry and Lithology
• Shear Impedance Volume
– Lithology, Fluid
• Density Volume
– Fluid type and ‘fizz water’ discriminator
• Vp/Vs Volume or
• Poisson’s Ratio Volume
– Lithology, Fluid type, Net/Gross ratio’s
• Porosity Volume
• N/G and Sw Estimations
ALI BAKR
Avo Analysis – Obtaining Shear Velocity estimates
ALI BAKR
Rock Property Calibration
Shear Velocity
Pwave Velocity
ALI BAKR
Easier to Interpret
ALI BAKR
Inversion Workflow
Rock Physics AVO Analysis and Vp/Vs Pre-Stack Full

Analysis Processing Waveform
Model Inversion
and
Modeling
P, S, Density Reflectivity Volumes
IRD
Integrated Low
Reservoir Frequency
Description Models
P,S, Absolute Impedance & Density

Volumes
Petro-Acoustic Calibration
ALI BAKR
Quality Control of Inversion Process
• Well logs should be examined for suitable relationships

between measured impedance logs (calculated by dividing the
density by the the sonic log) and properties such as porosity and
fl uid type
• Well Logs should be converted to time and edited for
borehole effects, balanced, and classified based upon quality
• Synthetics should be generated for all wells. Logs that do not
tie should be investigated for problems in log, wavelet, or
seismic
• It is generally preferable to run a loosely constrained trace
based inversion fi rst (possibly augmented by non seismic data
such as trend data from velocities or wells) to use for
interpretation of a more tightly constrained model for later use
in a model based inversion
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKAfRter R. B.
• The main test of inversion accuracy is how well it ties to the

input data
• Volumes that rely heavily on log derived models should match
the logs at the well locations
• More model based volumes should match the seismic and
the synthetic created after inversion
• To make a valid comparison between log data and inverted
impedance the log data should be fi ltered t o the range of
the seismic frequencies
• In all cases a universal check is to compare the model to well
data that was not included in the processing - a “blind” accuracy
test
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKRAfter R. B. Latimer

If results of the inversion do not tie and you have correctly

processed logs then check the wavelet
• an inversion should be done over a time target with a wavelet
extracted from that interval
• if a wavelet from deeper is used it may have too low of
frequency and can result in “ringing”
• if a higher frequency wavelet from a shallower interval is
used deeper than results will appear smeared
• wavelets with an incorrect phase or amplitude spectrum can
result in erroneous time shifts that contain extra side lobes an
create false geological features
ALI BAKR
• Lack of low frequency can also be a problem. Sources other

than logs include pre-stack time or depth migration velocities
• The final AI product should also be checked against a relative
impedance result (low frequencies have been fi ltered out). While
this model is limited structurally and stratigraphically … any
feature that is only seen on the broadband volume but not
apparent on the band-limited target should be carefully
examined. It could be the result of a poorly implemented low
frequency model.
ALI BAKR
A Question of Scale
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI
BAKR
Question of Heterogeneous Reservoirs
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI
BAKR
Establishing a Relationship Between AI and Lithology
ALI BAKR
DFrroAmLCI.
TBorAreKs-VRerdin et al
6-SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
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Seismic Stratigraphy
Why doing Seismic straigraphy?
• Geological age correlations

• Thickness estimates
• Environment of deposition
• Paleobathymetry
• Burial history
• Relief
• Topography on unconformities
• Lithology
• Porosity/permeability
• Fluid content
• Insight into source and seal
ALI BAKR
Scale of Study
There are three scales for seismic straigraphy studies:
• Regional Scale Seismic Strat-Interpretation – Large-scale

stratigraphic interpretation of data “seismic stratigraphy”.
• Prospect Scale Seismic Strat-interpretation. Localized

interpretation to define a prospect. May include use of
reflection configurations, wave shape, amplitude, etc.
• Reservoir scale Seismic Strat-interpretation.

Quantitatively characterize reservoir (net sand, phi-H, etc.)
to permit reserve determination, reservoir simulation ,etc…
ALI BAKR
• Why doing seismic stratigraphy?
• Scale of seismic stratigraphy study
• Assumptions
• Categories
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Assumptions for Reflection Character Analysis
• Reflections are boundaries of impedance contrast.
• Reflections have areas in excess of the fi rst Fresnel zone or .
• Reflections are from bedding surfaces.
• Reflections parallel time/age lines.
ALI BAKR
2-Seismic Stratigraphy
• Defi nitions
• Why doing seismic stratigraphy?
• Scale of seismic stratigraphy study
• Assumptions
• Categories
ALI BAKR
Categories
Seismic stratigraphy is divided into two main

categories:
• Reflection- character analysis
• Seismic facies analysis
ALI BAKR
Categories- Reflection Character Analysis
Reflection character analysis

Analyse the lateral variation of an individual
refl ection unit or units in order to localise where
stratigraphic changes are found and identify their
nature.
ALI BAKR
Reflector terminations defining the upper and lower boundary

of a sequences
24 6 23 22 21
23 5
22 23
4 8
21 21 22 3
2 7
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
Concordant above Onlap above Concordant above
Erosional: angular, structural Erosional: angular, nonstructural Toplap below
21 22 24 25
6 21
9 5
4
8 3 3
7 2
5 4 2 1 1 21
Downlap above Downlap above Downlap above
Erosional: angular, structural Erosional: angular, nonstructural Concordant below
24
22
21
9 4
21 21 3
4 2
7 3
1
Onlap above Onlap above Concordant above
Erosional: angular, structural Tilting or original Concordant
depositional attitude below
ALI BAKR
Reflector terminations defining the upper and lower boundary

of seismic sequences
ALI BAKR
Toplap (Upper Boundaries)

It is a termination of strata, or seismic marker, against an overlying surface
mainly resulting of non-deposition (sedimentary bypassing) with perhaps
only minor erosion. Each unit of strata laps out in a landward direction at
the top of the unit, and each successive termination lies progressively
seaward.
ALI BAKR
Toplap
1 Coastal toplap
2 Marine toplap
3 Non-marine toplap
ALI BAKR
Reflection Character Analysis
Toplap
1- Coastal toplap
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Toplap
2- Marine toplap
ALI BAKR
Toplap
3- Non-marine toplap
ALI BAKR
Mark Toplap (Upper

Boundaries)
ALI BAKR
Categories- Reflection Character
Analysis
Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)
Where inclined strata terminate against an erosional surface.
An unconformity is an erosional surface that separates younger strata from older rocks and
represents a significant hiatus (at least a correlatable part of a geochronologic unit is not
represented by strata). In very particular cases, an unconformity can corresponds to an non-
depositional surface. Periods of erosion and non deposition occur at each global fall of sea level
producing interregional unconformities. Although in some areas of continuous deposition, the
hiatus may be too small to be detected paleontologically or seismically, and the surface is defi ned
as a conformity.
ALI BAKR
Erosional truncation (Upper

Boundaries)
.
ALI BAKR
Mark Erosional truncation (Upper

Boundaries)
ALI BAKR
Onlap (Lower Boundaries)

If a period of deposition dominated by bedload transport ( sand
sized materials) ceases and is followed by a period of deposition
from suspended load, then filling the latter ususally produces an
onlapping sequence.
ALI BAKR
Onlap 1-Proximal onlap
2 Distal onlap
3Coastal onlap
4-Marine onlap
5 Apparent
onlap
6Nonmarine onlap
7-True onlap
8-Tilted onlap
ALI BAKR (Apparent
downlap)
Onlap
1- Proximal onlap : is onlap in the direction of the source of

clastic supply.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
2-Distal onlap onlap in the direction away from the source of

clastic supply.
ALI BAKR
Onlap
3-Coastal onlap is the progressive landward onlap the coastal

of deposits in a given stratigraphic unit.
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Onlap
4- Marine onlap is the onlap of marine strata, primarily

deep
marine (deposited seaward of the shelf break) in nature.
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Onlap
5- Apparent onlap is the onlap observed in any randomly

oriented vertical section, which may or may not be oriented
parallel to depositional dip.
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Onlap
6- Non-marine onlap is the onlap observed in non-

marine environments, that is to say, landward of the
depositional coastal break.
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Onlap
7- True onlap : when two apparent onlaps are observed on two

sections intersecting at right angles, the true onlap is likely to
be observed on the section parallel to the depositional dip.
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Onlap
8- Tilted onlap is an apparent geometrical relationship, that

looks like a downlap. Generally, it is induced by tilting,
compensatory subsidence and salt or shale flowage.
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Mark Onlap (Lower

Boundaries)
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Mark Onlap
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Onlap
Faulted units beneath the NW continental margin of Australia, blanketed by a post-tectonic sedimentary
cover of late Mesozoic and younger age. The faults are shown here as showing normal throws. However,
there may be partial inversion of these structures to create the antiformal structure on the NW side of the
section. The post kinematic section lies on an erosional unconformity and onlaps significant relief across
the section. Author: Rob Butler
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Mark Onlap
Profile across part of the Central Basin, Iran, NE of the city of Qom. Image from Morley et al.
(in press, 2009) Structural development of a major Late Cenozoic basin and transpressional
belt in Central Iran: the Central Basin in the Qom-Saveh area. Author: Chris Morley
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Onlap
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Mark
1 Onlap
2 Erosional Truncation
A dipline (see the associated regional project for location) with a well location marked. Note
the angular truncation and erosion of the carbonates below the major unconformity associated
with the karstifi cation of the carbonates. This erosion formaed a distinct penenplain, that is
readily traced across basement rocks (right) into the karsted carbonates at the well location.
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Mark Onlap
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Categories- Reflection Character
Analysis
Onlap
An interpretation of the
fault geometry and basin
fill in part of the Inner
Moray Firth. This
interpretation was done
using 2D seismic data
alone (see related
regional line) and
without reference to
external data or models.
The arrows denote stratal
terminations (onlap).
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Mark
1 Onlap
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Mark
1 Onlap
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Downlap (Lower Boundaries)

Seismic reflection of inclined strata terminate downdip
against an inclined or horizontal surface
Surfaces are present at the base of prograding packages. They are commonly associated
with
maximum fl ooding surfaces produced by a rise in relative sea level
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Downlap
1 Distal downlap
2 False downlap
3 Shelf downlap
4 Basin downlap
5 Opposite (local) downlap
6- Apparent downlap
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Downlap
1- Distal downlap is a downlap in the direction away from the source of clastic
supply. The majority of downlaps are distal downlaps.
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Downlap
2- False downlap is a downdip tangential stratal termination. Strata flatten

and continue as units, which, often, are so thin that they fall below the
seismic resolution.
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Downlap
3- Shelf downlap is a downlap recognized in a shelf. Often, it underlies the

slope of a depositional coastal break. The water depth is less than 200
meters (prodelta).
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Downlap
4- Slope downlap is a downlap associated with a continental slope.

The water depth is higher than 200 meters.
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Downlap
5- Opposite downlaps are characteristics of overbank deposits,

whether associated with fluvial or turbiditic levees
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Downlap
6- (Apparent downlaps) : original onlap terminations when deformed

by tectonics or halokinesis (salt tectonics) can become apparent
downlaps.
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Mark Downlap (Lower Boundaries)
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Categories
Seismic stratigraphy is divided into two main

categories:
• Reflection- character analysis
• Seismic facies analysis
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Categories- Seismic Facies Analysis
Why Seismic facies analysis
•Estimating deposition environment using the

character of the seismic reflections.
• Understand depositional history.

•Locate and predict potential hydrocarbon reservoir
and stratigraphic traps.
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Categories-Seismic Facies Analysis
Seismic facies
It is the group of reflections bounded by top and base boundaries.
Seismic parameters used for facies detection are
1)-Reflection configuration
2)-Reflection amplitude
3)-Frequency
4)-Continuity
5)-Interval
velocity
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Facies Parameters Geologic Interpretation
1 Reflection Configuration •Bedding patterns
a) Internal config forms • Depositional processes
b) External config forms
• Fluid contacts
2- Reflection Continuity • Bedding continuity
• Depositional processes
3- Reflection Amplitude • AI contrast

• Bed thickness (tuning)
• Fluid content
4- Reflection Frequency • Bed thickness

• Fluid content
5- Interval Velocity • Lithology

•estimation
• Porosity estimation
• Fluid content
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1- Reflection Configuration
Internal & External Forms Configurations
The overall geometry of a stratigraphic, or seismic unit, consists of the internal form
and the external reflection configuration of the unit. Both must be described to
understand the geometric interrelation and depositional setting of the units.
•Internal Forms of Reflection Configuration (Filling pattern)
1 Onlap
2 Prograding
3 Mounded onlap
4-Divergent
5-Complex
6-Chaotic
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Internal Reflection Configuration (Filling Pattern)
Onlap Prograding Mounded onlap
Higher-energy fill
Low-energy filling of erosional Low-energy filling of
erosional channel in at least two stages.
channel
Divergent Complex Chaotic
Compactable (shale-prone) Sediment transport over the edge of the Very high-energy fill,
low-energy sediments channel or along channel at a bend. possibly sand-prone.
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Onlap Divergent
Mounded onlap
Chaotic
Progradin
g
Complex
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Mounded onlap
Apparent Dip
relation to
the channel
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Internal & External Forms Configurations
The overall geometry of a stratigraphic, or seismic unit, consists of the internal
form and the external reflection configuration of the unit. Both must be described
to understand the geometric interrelation and depositional setting of the units.
•Internal Forms of Reflection Configuration (Filling pattern)
1 Onlap
2 Prograding
3 Mounded onlap
4-Divergent
5-Complex
6-Chaotic
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Prograding Pattern types
Oblique Oblique
Sigmoid
Tangentia Parallel
l
Hummocky Clinoforms
C
o
m
p
l
e
x
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S
i
g
m
External Reflection Configuration

sheet drape wedge bank lens
mound front slope fill channel fill

fan
Trough fill
Basin fill
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External forms of reflection confi guration
Mound
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Trough Fill
Seismic example illustrating

the complicated
stratigraphy of a submarine
slope valley fill with
adjacent levee deposits.
Image taken from Mayall et
al., 2006.
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Front Slop Fill
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Basin Fill
This 2D seismic line (BGS1993_02_C) is aligned NW-SE across the Hatton Basin. Buried volcanic
escarpments are imaged on both margins of the basin. Each has a relief of c. 1 second TWT. The escarpments
are buried beneath the Tertiary sedimentary fill of the Hatton Basin, which thins towards the basin
margins, onlapping the flanks.
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Fan
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Channel fill
2.
1
2. ---684m-- E
2
W
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Categories-Seismic Facies
Analysis
A: Braided (low sinuosity, multi-channel stream)

B: Meandering (high sinuosity, single channel stream)
C: Straight (low sinuosity, single channel stream)
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Channel fill
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Incised Valley System
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Seismic Facies Analysis
Submarine Channel
SS NE NE
W
W
2.5
SW
2.75 0 2.5 km
Deposition occurs on inner
bends (point bars) and
erosion on outer bends.
Cross-over reaches between
bends are largely area of
sediment transfer
High
Low
Pliocene submarine channel-Nile Delta
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1- Reflection
Configuration
External forms of reflection
configuration
Incised Valley System
5 km
Incised Canyons sourcing sediment down slope Off shore

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Mark Incised Valley System
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1- Reflection
Configuration
Lens
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Bank
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Drape
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2- Reflection continuity:
• Bedding continuity
• Depositional processes
High Continuity
(continuous strata deposited in
widespread and uniform
environment, (marine
conditions)
Difference in
continuity du to
different shooting
parameters
Low Continuity
(sediments deposited with
variable energy (by fluvial-
Alluvial currents)
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3- Amplitude
Amplitude is the height of
reflection peak and it dependent
on the reflection coeffi cient.
High amplitude
•Vertical change in amplitude can Low amplitude
be used to locate unconformities.
•Lateral change can be used to help

distinguish seismic facies.
•Lateral changes in amplitude can

help delineate the edges of bright
spots
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4- Frequency (Spacing) High frequency-small spacing
It describes the number of reflections

per unit time .
•It is a function of both frequency of

seismic signal and interference effects.
•Vertical change in spacing can be used

to locate boundaries between
depositional sequences.
•Lateral change can be used to infer

facie
Low frequency-
long spacing
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5- Interval velocity:
Push down
Estimation of lithology
Estimation of porosity
Fluid content
V
V V2
1
2
Velocity Anomaly - pull down

V V V1 < V2
2 1 V Push down (velocity sag) due
Velocity: V=(/c)4
2 to gas accumulation
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Fluid content
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Fluid content
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Fluid content
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Analysis
5- Interval velocity: Push down Gas Chimney
Sea
Floor
Plio-
Pleistocene
Sea floor turbidities
~ 100 ms
Top
Reservoir (=
Top A)
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Gas chimney emanating from sinkhole;

amplitude reduction and structural / gas sag
5-Interval velocity:
Fluid content
Pull up & Pull down
V2 V1
V On this seismic line from offshore Angola, the pull-down of
the yellow marker (bottom of the evaporitic interval) is
Velocity Anomaly2- pull down induced by the lateral change of the interval-velocity created
V1 < V2 by the normal fault which limits a Upper Tertiary depocenter.
Indeed, such a fault put limestones (upthrown block) and
Velocity: V=(/c)4 shales (downthrown block in juxtaposition.
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V
V V2
1
2
Velocity Anomaly - pull up

V1 < V2
Velocity: V=(/c)4
On this reef geological model, above a planar limestone sole (light blue), a reef with a compressional wave
velocity of 5490 m/s, is laterally bounded by shaly sediments (yellow) with a much lower velocity (3660 m/s),
which are overlain by even slower sediments (brown interval, 3050 m/s). The seismic answer of such a model is
roughly depicted on the right. The horizon associated with the bottom of the reef shows a significant pull-up.
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V
V V2
1
2
Velocity Anomaly - pull up
Palaeozoic carbonate reef build-ups (Barents Sea)
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Analysis
PSDM Migration No pull up Time Migration- pull up anomaly from reef
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sheet
prograding
parallel, even,
high amplitude wedge
parallel, discontinuous,
sheet low amplitude
subparallel
front
slope
fill
chaotic
prograding
mound
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7- 4D
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What is 4D Seismic?
• Is the analysis of differences found in seismic surveys repeated in

an area where substantial changes in the subsurface have
occurred, due to production processes
– Qualitative
– Quantitative
• Provides information with lateral continuity that provides a

VISION of actual changes in the reservoir
– Fluid substitution
– Temperature
– …
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4D Seismic - the Concept
• Also known as Seismic Reservoir Monitoring or Time-

Lapse Seismic
• Consists of 3D seismic surveys, repeated after intervals
of substantial production
• Successive surveys analysed for differences
• Observes fl uid changes in the reservoir
• Available between & beyond the wells
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Classification of Gullfaks data
1985 1995 Difference
0 SHCindicator 1 No change Large change
34 well locations selected; additional 600 million bbl producible reserves

found as result of 4D
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Continual Improvement
Foinaven Data, Norwegian Sea
W E
1993
93 reprocessed 95
AA
ALLLII Flat Spot 95 towed
BB
BAAAKK KR
RR
Pioneer Examples: Duri Field
•Seismic image of DURI field, where

effects of steam injection are easily
visualized in the seismic data
•D. Lumley, 1995
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4D Interpretation Workflows
• Fluid substitution modelling

• Seismic repeatability assessment
• Seismic interpretation
• Seismic attribute extraction
• Classification (Inversion)
• Reservoir optimisation
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4D Workflow
Fluid
substitution,
AVO Inversion-
modelling Interpretation
Classification
Seismic Seismic attribute

repeatability extraction
assessment,
wavelet, Reservoir
etc.. optimisation
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Fluid Substitution
Synthetic Response to Change in Rock Physics
••Change
Change of
of physical
physical
parameters
••TT dependence
dependence
•• Fluid
Fluidfactor
factoris is
very
important
very important
TEMPERATURA 25A 7A 1A 3A 4A 8A
10A
3,10
24,00 2,92 2,65 2,67 3,01 2,81 2,84
2,81
40,00
2,90
2,68
V
2,74 2,54 2,56 2,87 LS-2203
2,68 2,64
Serie1
60,00 2,52 2,38 2,40 2,70 2,44 2,46
2,53 Serie
2,70
80,00 2,36 2,22 2,20 2,60 2,31 2,27 2
2,42 Serie
100,00 2,27 2,08 2,11 2,50 2,17 2,15 3
2,32
2,50
Serie
125,00 2,17 1,99 2,02 2,41 2,06 2,05
2,19 4
150,00
2,30 2,08 1,91 1,95 2,30 1,98 1,97 Serie
2,11 5
28 %
Serie
2,10 6
Serie7
Serie8
1,90
T
Serie9
Serie1
AA
ALLLII 1,70
0
© NExT all rights reserved Serie1
BB
BAA AKK KR 24,00 40,00 60,00
80,00
100,00 125,00 150,00
1
RR Serie1
2
Serie1
4D (Time-Lapse) Seismic
Gullfaks Field, North Sea
Mapping fluid movements and identifying unswept hydrocarbons
1989 1996 
No change Large change

0 SHC indicator 1
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Time Lapse Seismic
Sleipner CO2 Storage
1994 1999 2001

ALI BAKR Monitoring of C02 injection in
Data courtesy of aquifer
Statoil
Time Lapse Seismic
Sleipner CO2 Storage
Seismic 1999 Seismic 2002
Amplitude difference and vertical time shift due to cumulated gas

effect conduct to erroneous 4D effect if not compensated
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Data courtesy of
Statoil
4D Summary
• 4D seismic provide important information for decision making

analysis in reservoir management
• Tailor made interpretation tools and workflows for 4D analysis
• Demonstrated the use of qualitative or semi-quantitative 4D
analysis for updating reservoir models
• Seismic to Simulation and Simulation to Seismic (S2S) are
established workflows
• Beyond qualitative interpretation, the link between reservoir
engineering and geophysics via rock physics enables quantitative 4D
analysis for reservoir management
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What is a Neural Network?
Neural Networks:
• recognize ill-defined patterns without an explicit set of rules
• may adaptively infer heuristic knowledge from sample data
• unlike statistical estimators, they estimate a function without
a mathematical model of how outputs depend upon inputs
• they are model free estimators, they “learn from experience”
with
numerical and , sometimes, linguistic sample data
• like brains, they recognize patterns we can not define, or what is
called recognition without definition
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OGCI - SER - Neural 42
Networks and Seismic Facies 9
Stratigraphic Interpretation
Seismic Facies Analysis using NNT: What Is It ?
Seismic Facies: The description and geologic interpretation of seismic

reflection patterns including confi gurations, (continuous, sigmoidal, etc.),
frequency, amplitude, and continuity.
Neural Network Technology (NNT): The ability to analyze and classify

trace shapes using a discriminating process.
Seismic Facies Map: This is a similarity map of actual traces to a set

of model traces that represents the diversity of various trace
shapes present in an interval.
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Example for using NNT- Texas Ranch 3D
• 3D Survey - DeWitt Co., Texas Well A

(~0.1
MMCFD)
Well B
360 inlines - 382 crosslines (~1
MMCFD)
82.5’x82.5’ bin spacing (34 sq.miles)
4 seconds of data @ 4 msec
• Well Data W E
mil
S e
Well B
Two wells drilled in main channel
1
SW mil NE
Well A - 15ft wet sand (“fizzy” water)
e
Well B - 30ft gas sand
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The Play: Frio Channel Sandstones
“Gas production comes from Oligocene Frio sandstones

described as fluvial channel fi lls, point bars, and splay deposits
deposited in a plain mudstone”.
Well Well
A Random Line B
Reference
Horizon
Frio
Channel
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Mixed map: Time (in color) and amplitude (in B&W)
• Horizon Attributes
Time Horizon Map combined A

with seismic amplitude at
reference horizon.
B
Note Channel systems.
Stratigraphic play with

several braided fluvial
systems with bright spots.
… structure-independent.
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• Time Slice
Taken at 824 msec. A
Main Channel clearly

identified by bright spots. B
Is there a break in the

channel?
Why are the wells different?
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A
• Horizon Slice
Parallel to Reference
Horizon - 92 msec below. B
Continuous channel now

clearly seen.
Still cannot adequately

explain differences at
wells.
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Seismic Facies Analysis using NNT: What Is It ?
Seismic Facies: The description and geologic interpretation of seismic

reflection patterns including confi gurations, (continuous, sigmoidal, etc.),
frequency, amplitude, and continuity.
Neural Network Technology (NNT): The ability to analyze and classify

trace shapes using a discriminating process.
Seismic Facies Map: This is a similarity map of actual traces to a set

of model traces that represents the diversity of various trace
shapes present in an interval.
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Stratigraphic Interpretation Part I
A
•Unsupervised
Regional Seismic
B
Facies Analysis
Horizon slices indicate vertical

channel extent of approx. 40 msec.
Seismic Facies map of entire area

over the 40-msec interval and 15
model traces.
Channel system characterized by

model traces 1,2, and 3.
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• Conventional Amplitude
B
Vs. Seismic Facies Approach
The seismic facies map is very…

colorful, but we still cannot
differentiate between the two
wells.
A
Why use seismic facies technology B

if it provides the same results as an
amplitude-based approach ?
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•Unsupervised
Channel Seismic
Facies Analysis
A
Seismic facies map over the

B
channel system shows a trace
shape difference between the A
and B wells
What is the meaning of this

trace shape variation ?
Lithology ?
Porosity ?
Fluid
content ?
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Petro-Acoustic Modeling
• Modeling at Well A Well A Well B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Input is well logs, seismic

facies model trace, and
seismic traces.
Synthetic Seismogram
generated and calibrated to
seismic traces.
Model now modified with

properties observed at Well
B (30-ft sand). Trace shape
change replicates variation
between A and B.
Red=Sonic
Blue=Density
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Stratigraphic Interpretation Part II
•3D Model-Based
Propagation of the A
Main Channel
Time map of channel

horizon generated using
seismic character at wells
A and B.
Note: Well A structurally

higher than well B in B
the time domain.
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A
•Supervised Seismic
Facies Analysis
“Focused” interpretation, based on

petro-Acoustic modeling results and
areal isolation of channel system. B
Model indicates that interval affected

by sand property changes is wider -
increase to 72 msec (12 model classes).
B A
Note difference in trace shape at wells.
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Random line through A B

wells.
BEFORE shows
unsupervised seismic
facies (similar at
wells).
BEFORE
AFTER shows
supervised seismic AFTER
facies (different at
wells).
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Final Seismic Facies Map of

channel system (in color), mixed A
with average amplitude (in
B&W) over same interval.
B
Note channel to south of Well B.
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Neural Networks Consist of:
• numerous, simple processing units or “neurons” that we can

globally program for computation.
• They can be programmed or trained to store, recognize, and
associatively retrieve patterns or database entries to solve
combinatorial optimization problems, to filter noise from
measurement data, to control ill-defined problems - to
estimate sampled functions when we do not know the form
of the functions
• artifi cial neural systems may contain millions of
nonlinear neurons and interconnecting synapses and
future systems may contain billions of real or virtual
model neurons
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44
5
Natural Fracture Classification
(A Genetic Classification)
• Tectonic Fractures
– Fold-related, Fault-related
• Regional Fractures
– Joints, Cleat
• Contractional Fractures
– Chickenwire, Diagenesis-related, Columnar Joints
• Surface-related & Induced
– Unloading, Spall, Weathering
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Fractures Surrounding a Normal
Fault in Miocene Ss
East
West
Western Sinai,
Hangingwall Egypt
S1
S3
S3
10 ft
Footwall
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Fractures Around a Normal Fault
Clastics, Brunei
1 ft
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Variations in Fracture Intensity Associated with
Faults are Due To:
1. Pre-Slip Effects
• Fracture zone preparing the rock mass for fault slip (halo zone).
• Precedes propagating fault.
• Interactions between propagating fault tips and halos.
2. Effects Occurring During Slip
• More fracturing as “hanging wall” moves over an irregular
fault surface.
• Intense deformation occurs at the slip surface leading to
a “damage zone”.
3. Post-Slip Effects
• The presence of faults can warp today’s reservoir stress
state giving local changes in fracture permeability.
• More fractures could be created if the faults are reactivated
&/or inversion takes place (local fracture overprinting).
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R.A. Nelson 9/02

Process zone fracturing surrounding a Normal Fault
kmax
? Volume of rock
fractured prior to
through-going fault
slip
kmin
Damage zone is usually

low in permeability.
Background Effective process zone is
fractures related Damage Zone (c. a few the zone that is
fractures due to feet) significantly greater than
normaNl Effective Process Zone (a few matrix flow.
sottrteossscsatlae te. hundred feet)
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Pre-Slip Fracturing Forming the Process Zone
Fracture Swarm
Background
Fracturing
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Onset of Fault Slip: Propagating Slip Through
Process Zone
Extending
Process Zone
Proces
s Zone
Propagating Slip
Surface
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Fault Propagation Interaction in 3-D Creating
New Fractures
Interacting Faults
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Slip-Related Effects:
Fracturing Related to Fault Slip
• Additional fractures are generated as the hanging wall

displaces over topography of the fault surface.
• Once generated at the asperity these fracture zones are

translated down the slip direction along the fault.
• If fault slip is small, little slip-related fracturing will take place.
• Curvature maps of the fault surface can be used as a guide

for this prediction.
• Accurate fault plane mapping is critical in predicting these

zones
of kinematic fracturing.
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R.A. Nelson 9/02

Slip-Related Fracturing in Map View
Outside bend Inside bend
High extensional strain High compressional strain
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Local Stress Variations at Fault Steps & Bends
Displacement
transfer
Left-Stepping
Left-Lateral
Right-
Stepping
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Schematic Map View of an Inversion Fault
with Changes in Fault Strike
Zone of maximum local

compressional strain
Inversion-related
compression direction
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Schematic Map View of an Inversion Fault with
Changes in Fault Strike
Zone of maximum
local extensional
strain
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Schematic View of Fracture Systems Associated with Secondary
Faults Along Inversion Faults with and without Strike-slip
Major Inversion Major Inversion

Fault Fault
Secondary
Antithetic Faults Secondary Faults in a
strike-slip scenario
No Strike-slip With Strike-

slip
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Kinematic Fracture Zones Associated with
Fault Topography in Cross Section View
Normal Fault With Dip

Changes in Cross Section
Extension Zone
Fracturing
Compression Zone
Fracturing
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Schematic Cross Section of an Inversion Fault
with Changes on Fault Dip
Zone of local
compressional strain
Zone of local
extensional strain
Only reverse
fault fracture
Post-rift sets
Overprinted normal Syn-rift

& reverse fault
fracture sets?
Basement
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Local Fracturing Due to Slip on an Irregular fault
Surface
Compression Zone
Fracturing
Extension Zone
Fracturing
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Slip-Related Effects:
Deformation at the Slip Surface
•Once through-going fault slip occurs, the zone immediately
surrounding the slip surface can experience intense
deformation. (“Damage Zone”)
• This deformation is quite variable and can range from
purely
ductile to purely brittle.
•There is a relationship between the properties of this zone
and amount of slip.
•The width of these zones can be variable between faults and
along faults but range generally between 1 to 10 m.
•The width and properties of these zones are difficult to
predict or image in the subsurface. Observational data
based on cores leads to the best predictions.
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R.A. Nelson 9/02
Fracture Process Zone Surrounding a Planar
Normal Fault
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Normal Fault Reactivated as a Reverse Fault
Overprinting
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Mapping Fault Zone Properties
Geometry, Width and
1. Gather exploration & show history
2. CompileIntensity
mechanical, petrophysical & production characteristics of
section
3. Acquire and map surface & subsurface fracture distributions
4. Determine fracture origin and make mechanical predictions of
orientation & intensity
5. Determine in situ reservoir stress directions and magnitudes
6. Constrain subsurface fracture intensity, width, & zone widths and
lengths from image logs, core, and geophysical Attributes
7. Predict fracture distribution “sweet spots” from the above
8. Model reservoir volumes of the fracture system
9. High-grade and prioritize potential locations via checklist
10. Select well paths to optimize fracture intercept rate and choose
optimum completion technique
ALI BAKR
Fold-Related Fractures
Phosphoria Ls, Black Canyon Anti., WY
ALI BAKR
Fold-Related Fractures
Paleozoic Carbonate, W. Wyoming Thrust Belt

ALI BAKR

Seismic Interpretation by Dr. Ali Bakr-4

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Seismic Interpretation by Dr. Ali Bakr-4

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SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

Dr. ALI BAKR

7. 4D seismic (Time Laps)

• Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping are key skills

• This teaching resource introduces the basic principles of

• The resource dovetails with the A level Geology specifi cations

• An air gun towed behind the survey

• Wiggle trace to CDP gather

Graphs of intensity of sound as received by Graphs of intensity for one location

Change in lithology from mud to sand so sound

Data for one point from different signals to different receivers

Understanding the data

• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

Common Depth Points Common midpoint above CDP

Sound sources Sound receivers

Common reflecting point or

Two way time (TWT) TWT

Time versus depth

• Two way time (TWT) does

0.58 sec. TWT

0.58 sec 926 926 m

• Check line scale and orientation.

• Work from the top of the section, where clarity is usually

• Distinguish the major refl ectors and geometries of seismic

• Some energy will be reflected, some will be

2V2 • Amount refl ected (amplitude of reflection)

– Defi ne refl ection

• Not all changes in lithology associated

• Different combinations of layers lithologies

• Seismic data image interfaces – we observe

Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-

Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-

Each RC gives rise to a separate refl ection event, the amplitude

Top & Base Top & Base

Impedance High Frequency Low

Seismic ability to define top

In general, reflections are composites of thin

Resolution depends on:

Frequency content in seismic data.

The interval velocity at the objective level

Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave =   Vf

f is the dominant frequency in Hz

• Most of the energy in a seismic wavelet is contained in a band of

Calculate wavelengths for the following

Vertical Resolution – Example (‘HFI’ Processing from Geotrace)

• Vertical Resolution is the ability to detect and map thin

• It is determined by the average frequency and bandwidth of

• We can typically resolve down to ¼ wavelength

• Wavelength is determined by frequency and velocity:

• The seismic signal contains a range of frequencies (left)

Fourier analysis may be used to see the

• Amplitude spectrum on left shows a broad

What is the dominant frequency of the seismic data in the

• Horizontal Resolution is the ability to map lateral changes in reservoir –

• Seismic energy is reflected from a patch rather than a point. Migration

• Prior to migration horizontal resolution is poor

• Horizontal resolution can approach vertical resolution if ‘aperture’ is

Seismic Energy Reflects from a Patch, not a Point

Lateral resolution described by Fresnel Zone

Fresnel zone diameter (F) depends upon:

Migration collapses diffractions and gives us horizontal resolution

• Fresnel Zone example:

DIP-SLIP OBLIQUE-SLIP STRIKE-

SUBSIDENCE BLOCK ROTATION