Non Beam Based AM-24.07.2020

NON BEAM BASED
ADDITIVE
MANUFACTURING:
DEFENSE APPLICATIONS
Dr. Adepu Kumar
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
NIT Warangal
Email ID: adepu_kumar7@nitw.ac.in
Contact no.9492783067
OVERVIEW
 Introduction to Additive Manufacturing (AM)
 Non Beam based Additive Manufacturing
 Friction Stir Additive Manufacturing(FSAM)
 Additive friction stir deposition
 Ultrasonic additive Manufacturing
 Wire Arc additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
 Beam based Additive Manufacturing
 Direct Energy Deposition process
 Powder Bed Fusion Process
 Hybrid manufacturing Process
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Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering, NITW 05/04/2024
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
3
INTRODUCTION TO AM
 Additive manufacturing is a manufacturing
process in which functional parts can be made
by adding materials without using special
tooling, jigs or fixtures.
 It provides tremendous advantages compared

with traditional subtractive manufacturing
processes
less lead time, less wastage, and a cost
independent of complexity
4
STEPS IN AM
Source: Ian Gibson, 2010
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CNC VS. AM
 Material
(plastic/wax/paper/cermics/composites/metals)
 Speed
 Complexity
 Accuracy
 Geometry
 Programming
 CNC-2.5D
 AM-3.0D
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TIME COMPRESSION
ENGINEERING/ CONCURRENT
ENGINEERING IN PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
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Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering,
NITW 05/04/2024 9
Applications of AM
 Direct Part Production
 Prototyping  Aerospace
 Visual Aids & Presentation Models 
Automotive & Motorsports
 Fit, Function, and Assembly  Medical
Models  Avatars & Figurines
 Tooling  Furniture, Home, and Office
 Metal Casting Accessories
 Architectural  Applications in Music
 Medical  Customer-created Products
 Anatomical & Surgical Models  Art & Jewelry
 Custom Prosthetic Design  Gifts, Trophies & Memorials
 Virtual Surgical Planning &  Marketing & Advertising
Personalized Surgical Instruments  Museum Displays
 Custom fabricated Implants  Fashion & High-performance
 Dental Products
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DIRECT PART PRODUCTION
APPLICATIONS : AEROSPACE
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NON BEAM BASED METAL
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
 Friction stir additive manufacturing
 Additive Friction stir deposition
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 Both friction stir additive manufacturing and additive
friction stir deposition are ‘intensive’ processes that
involve severe plastic deformation at high
temperatures.
 However, there are significant differences between

them. First one is a hybrid (both additive and
subtractive) sheet lamination process involving
welding that results in microstructures with cyclic
variations.
 whereas the other is a purely additive process that

deposits a new track with each pass. With each
individual layer undergoing the same type of severe
plastic deformation during deposition and reheating
afterwards, additive friction stir deposition can lead
to a much more homogeneous microstructure.
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A COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SOLID-STATE
AM PROCESSES
Process Process Friction stir Additive
Ultrasonic additive friction stir
additive manufacturing deposition
manufacturing
ASTM Sheet Sheet lamination NA
Classification lamination ( sheet thickness
( Sheet =1.5 mm)
thickness =0.1
mm)
Hybrid process Yes Yes No
Resolution Subtractive Subtractive Tool geometry
limiting factor process process
Temperature Relatively Low Relatively high Relatively high
Microstructure Similar to pre- Refined, equiaxed Refined,
processed in the stir zone equiaxed
only
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COMPARISON TO OTHER
SOLID-STATE AM PROCESSES
Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical 05/04/2024 15

COMPARISON TO ULTRASONIC
 Additive friction stir deposition is
fundamentally different in that it is a
material deposition process rather than a
sheet lamination process.
 In addition, the microstructure resulting
from the ‘intensive’ friction stir process is
dependent on dynamic recovery or dynamic
recrystallization, where as the ‘gentle’
ultrasonic process gives a similar
microstructure before and after fabrication
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COMPARISON TO FRICTION STIR
 Both friction stir additive manufacturing and
additive friction stir deposition are
‘intensive’ processes that involve severe
plastic deformation at high temperatures.
 However, there are significant differences
between them.
 One is a hybrid (both additive and
subtractive) sheet lamination process
involving welding that results in
microstructures with cyclic variations where
as the other is a purely additive process that
deposits a new track with each pass
17
PATHWAYS TO WIDESPREAD
IMPLEMENTATION OF METAL AM
 For wide spread implementation metal AM
needs to possess a series of attributes ,such
as
 affordability to customers
 convenience and ease of use
 energy efficiency
 environmental friendliness
 wide applicability to engineering materials
 compatibility with mature technologies
 reliability of part properties
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FRICTION STIR ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
 Non-consumable rotating tool with a custom
designed pin and shoulder is inserted into the
surfaces of sheets or plates to be joined and
traversed along the joint line.
 Solid state process & No melting
 Final thickness of the joint depends on
thickness of the sheets/plate and layers.
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ADDITIVE FRICTION STIR DEPOSITION
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RELATIONS TO FRICTION STIR
WELDING AND PROCESSING
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COMARISION OF THREE PROCESSES
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STRATEGIES OF ADDITIVE
FRICTION STIR DEPOSITION
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Tools with varying pin lengths
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SIC DISTRIBUTION IN STIR ZONE
Hardness distribution of Al/SiC FG composite
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UNDERLYING MATERIALS SCIENCE
 Additive friction stir deposition is a thermo
mechanical process.
 Important processing parameters include
Rotation of the shoulder, shoulder normal
force, filler material feed rate R, layer
height ,and transverse speed.
 These parameters control the heat flow and
material flow processes, which are fully
coupled.
 For the deposited material, the heat
generation dissipation and transfer
mechanisms are similar to the stirred material
in friction stir welding or processing
27
 Microstructure formation and applicability to non-
weldable alloys is same in both in friction stir
welding and processing, a shoulder with a
protruding pin is spun at a high rate and inserted
into the softened metal surface.
 The shoulder then traverses the material to either
join two interfaces in friction stir welding or treat
the surface in friction stir processing.
 However, in additive friction stir deposition, there
is no pin structure penetrating the base material.
 The different geometric configurations lead to
different heat flow boundary conditions, and
therefore, different cooling rates.
28
 In friction stir welding and processing, the stirred
material is surrounded and constrained by the material
in the thermo mechanically affected zone, into which
heat is transferred by thermal conduction.
 In additive friction stir deposition, the deposited
material of the first track of each layer is in direct
contact with air on either side, and heat transfer
perpendicular to the tool traveling direction occurs by
convection and radiation rather than conduction.
 Regarding heat generation, in friction stir welding or
processing it is generated at the shoulder-material and
pin-material interfaces, whereas in additive friction
stir deposition it is generated at the shoulder-material
and material-substrate (or new layer-previous layer)
interfaces
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FEATURES AND
CAPABILITIES

SOLID-STATE NATURE
 The peak temperature of an additive friction stir
deposition process normally ranges from 60 to
90% of the melting temperature
 Because of the absence of melting, parts do not
suffer from the issues associated with rapid
solidification, e.g. porosity, hot cracking,
elemental segregation and dilution, aggregation
of finely dispersed oxide particles and high
residual stresses
 The low porosity and residual stress in the as-
deposited part render post-processing heat
treatment unnecessary, although post-processing
for surface finish is often required.
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WIDE APPLICABILITY: ALLOYS, DISSIMILAR
MATERIALS, AND COMPOSITES
 Additive friction stir deposition has shown encouraging success
in fabricating a broad range of alloys. For example, it has
enabled fabrication of Al-based (1xxx, 2xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx
series) and Mg-based (AZ 31, WE 43) alloys with high part
quality[65,66]. The substrate material and the deposited
material do not need to be the same.
 When fabricating dissimilar materials, the thermo mechanical
process can lead to metallurgical bonding and good adhesion at
the interface despite the differences in chemistry, mechanical
properties, and thermal properties.
 The strong bonding between dissimilar materials will also allow
for multi-material AM, which enables design and fabrication of
functionally graded materials.
 By pre-mixing different powders and consolidating the mass the
feed material, metal matrix composites (MMCs) can be
deposited.
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WIDE APPLICABILITY: ALLOYS, DISSIMILAR
MATERIALS, AND COMPOSITES
(a) Images of a bend test for tantalum and niobium coatings deposited on a
copper substrate, which show strong mechanical bonding and no
delamination under bending.
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FLEXIBILITY IN FEED MATERIAL
 Beam-based processes have restrictions on feed material in terms
of powder composition, shape, and size.
 This imposes a great barrier for widespread implementation of

metal AM. In contrast, additive friction stir deposition can use a
solid rod made from cast or wrought alloys as the feed material.
 Traditional atomized powder feedstock can also be used without

stringent requirements on powder attributes. High quality,
reproducible Al 6061 and Inconel 625 parts have been
manufactured using solid rod feed material, and Al-Mo and Al-SiC
composites have been manufactured from powder feedstock .
 To qualify as viable feed materials for additive friction stir

deposition, consistent as deposited microstructures and properties
are necessary. The compatibility with inexpensive and mature
technologies like casting provides a convenient and economic route
to test the printability of feed materials.
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SPEED AND SCALABILITY
 The build rate in additive friction stir deposition is
controlled by the shoulder size and filler diameter, and
is comparable to that of other large-scale AM processes
such as wire arc AM
 Additive friction stir deposition is a free space
manufacturing process like directed energy deposition,
so the part size is not constrained by a vacuum
chamber or powder bed. This allows for large-scale
fabrication – parts with dimensions of ~1.5 m have been
fabricated
A large window frame made of AA 6061
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A CHART OUTLINING THE BENEFITS OF
ADDITIVE FRICTION STIR DEPOSITIO
36
LIMITATIONS

IN-PLANE RESOLUTION
 The development of additive friction stir
deposition-based technology has focused on
increasing the part size and build rate. As a
result, the shoulder and filler dimensions are
large, leading to a large in plane feature
size.
 While powder bed fusion can make parts with
a small feature size on the order of
0.5mm,the in-plane resolution of additive
friction stir deposition is limited to ~10 mm
or above given the current tooling capability
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FROM COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD) TO
PART
 In additive friction stir deposition, the deposition
path is guided by a G-code-based hatch pattern.
Since algorithms are available to automatically
convert the CAD file to G-code, it is
straightforward to go from CAD file to part as
long as the geometry is printable.
 The printable geometry is limited by the in-plane
resolution and maximum over hang angle in
additive friction stir deposition. Given the layer-
by-layer nature of additive friction stir
deposition, parts may require additional post
processing to compensate for the stepwise
transition at the edge of each layer. This is highly
dependent on the feature size and part geometry
39
BUCKLING
 A potential concern related to mechanical
instability is the printing of high-aspect-ratio
components, because the normal force from
the shoulder may cause buckling
40
TOOLING DEVELOPMENT
 Shoulder life time is of utmost concern for
additive friction stir deposition, as the
machine's performance is tied to the tool's
ability to reliably stir material.
 A balance must exist between the economic
viability and degradation rate of the shoulder.
 The target shoulder proper ties include high
wear resistance, high fracture toughness, high
compressive yield strength at elevated
temperatures, high thermal fatigue strength,
creep resistance, chemical stability, and low
cost
41
ULTRASONIC ADDITIVE
MANUFACTURING
 It is a hybrid sheet lamination process combining
ultrasonic metal seam welding and CNC milling
 In UAM, the object is built up on a rigidly held base
plate bolted onto a heated platen, with temperatures
ranging from room temperature to approximately
200C.
 Parts are built from bottom to top, and each layer is
composed of several metal foils laid side by side and
then trimmed using CNC milling
 During UAM, a rotating sonotrode travels along the
length of a thin metal foil (typically 100–150 μm thick).
The foil is held closely in contact with the base plate
or previous layer by applying a normal force via the
rotating sonotrode
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INTRODUCTION TO UAM/UC
 The sonotrode oscillates transversely to the direction
of motion, at a constant 20 kHz frequency and user-
set oscillation amplitude.
 After depositing a foil, another foil is deposited
adjacent to it. This procedure is repeated until a
complete layer is placed. The next layer is bonded
to the previously deposited layer using the same
procedure.
 Typically four layers of deposited metal foils are
termed one level in UAM. After deposition of one
level, the CNC milling head shapes the deposited
foils/layers to their slice contour (the contour does
not need to be vertical, but can be a curved or
angled surface, based on the local part geometry)
43
FEATURES OF UAM
 Creating complex features
 Eliminates stair stepping effect
 Good surface finish and accuracy by CNC Milling
44
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UAM AND CNC
46
4. Ultrasonic consolidation
• Additive plus subtractive process.
• This is a bond then form process.
• Ultrasonic seam welding + CNC milling .
• Object is on plate rigidly held with bolt and
heated to 200 °C.
• High-frequency (typically 20,000 Hz) ultrasonic
vibrations are locally applied to metal foil
materials, held together under pressure, to
create a solid-state weld.
• Four layers = one level.
• CNC contour milling is then used to create the
required shape for the given layer.
• Weld at low temp (0.5 Tm).
• Low energy consumption for weld.
• Less residual stress.
47
Fig. Schematic of ultrasonic consolidation[1]
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 Dimensional accuracy and Surface Finish – Milling
 Eliminates the stair-stepping effects and layer-

thickness-dependent accuracy aspects
 ultrasonic bonding,+ additive-plus-subtractive

Processing
 the UC process is capable of creating complex,
multifunctional 3D parts, including objects with
complex internal features, objects made up of
multiple material, and objects integrated with wiring,
fiber optics, sensors, and instruments.
 Over hanging structure : ?
 Fabrication procedure for a honeycomb structure

using UC
 Foil width Variation – every four layer- Internal
features
th 49
FIG: Fabrication procedure for a honeycomb
structure
Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department using
of Mechanical UC NITW
Engineering,
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05/04/2024
UC Bond Quality
• Linear welding density (LWD) (bonded interface divided by the

total interface )
• Part strength.
• Between two ultrasonically consolidated foils .
• The percentage of interface which is bonded divided by the total
length of the interface.
• Determined metallographically.
Fig: A UC part made from four layers of

Al 3003 foils. LWD is determined by
calculating the bonded interface divided
by the total interface. [1]
51
Electronics, automotive, and aerospace.
Max temp = 50 % of M.P.
Less thermal residual stress.
Solid state welding
(a) generation of atomically clean metal
surfaces, and
(b) intimate contact between clean metal
surfaces
52
Metal foil thickness
• Foil thickness should be 150-200 .
• Bonds are easily formed between thin metal
foils.
Fig: Aluminium foil
53
Oxide Formation
• Enhanced oxide formation at elevated
temperatures will prevent oxide removal to a
greater degree than the enhanced softening
that aids plastic deformation.
Fig: Ultrasonic consolidation

54
Ultrasonic consolidation
application
• Internal features
• Material flexibility
• Fiber embedment
• Smart structures
55
1. Internal features
 Capable of producing complex internal features within metallic

material
 Honeycomb structures, internal pipes and enclosed cavities.
 This is possible due to CNC trimming is done before deposition of

next layer.
 Internal feature also has certain limitation as top surface of the

internal feature having downward face is not able to machine with
the help of CNC
 Hence we get stair –step surface geometry instead of CNC milled

at the top surface of internal geometry
 After completing internal feature we can enclose the internal

features by welding next layer over it
 Internal channels and Honey comb structure ?

56
2. Material flexibility
we can use materials which are ultrasonically welded

all those can be used for UC.
The mostly used materials are Al alloys, Inconel 600,

brass, SS 316, Ni 201,and highly purity copper.
Also we can use Metpreg - Alumina fiber reinforced Al

matrix composite tape.
We can use metal foil as well as pre woven stainless

steel wire meshes.
Using different metal foil it is possible to produce

single product with different material at different
location – Multi material structure and functionally
grade
Prof. Adepu material.
Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering, NITW
57
05/04/2024
58
3. Fiber embedment
• Fibers can be embedded between the layers
• Forming a metal matrix composite
• Optical fiber also embedded without damage
• Also in dissimilar metals also fibers can be
entrapped
• If two different metals are used then fiber will not
maintain its position at intersection
• Need an fiber feeder system with alignment
mechanism and able to change the fiber direction
and foil between layers
• Ceramic fiber and metal matrix
composite can be prepared.
• Tensile load and shear load
• Long fiber
• MMC
Fig: Fibers in matrix [URL:
• Prof.
Optical fiber
Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering, NITW www.solidica.com] 59 05/04/2024
60
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4. Smart structure
Smart structure –sense, transmit, control, react to data

or environmental change.
Structure integrated with the sensor, actuators,
processor, thermal management device.
Full 3-D entire geometry, composition and placement.
UC- Best for smart structures- Metallic structure at low
temp.
In this we are inserting the electronic component into the
product at the time of manufacturing .
Possible because of metal part manufactured at low
temperature .
Also internal cavities easily prepared using UC to place
the other features.
Electronics, actuators and heat pipes .
Direct write technologies.
62
Fig: Schematic illustrating the creation of a smart structure using UC
63
Structurally Embedded Electrical
System using UC
(a) Preparing base and cavity for (b) Placing sensor in

inserting sensor cavity
(c) Padding with epoxy (d) Enclose the sensor in

part
Fig: [Structurally Embedded Electrical Systems Using Ultrasonic
Consolidation (UC)Erik J. Siggarda, Anand S. Madhusoodananb, Brent
Stuckera, Brandon Eamesb] 64
DEFECTS
 Voids-along the interface.
 Type-1 -voids along layer/layer interfaces due to foil
surface roughness and/ or insufficient input energy.
 Type-2 -damaged areas, also at the layer/layer
interface, that are created when excess energy input
during UC results in the breaking of previously formed
bonds.
 Type-3 -between adjacent foils within a layer.
Defects in UC made of Al 3003

65
Type-1
 Presence of oxide layer or defect
morphology.
 Flat upper surface and round bottom surface
with oxide layer .
Type-2
 Bonding has occurred .
 voids – interface torn apart after bonding.
Type-3
 Physical gap between adjacent metal foil .
 Setting foil width and foil width.
66
• Part strength optimization – Increasing LWD and minimizing
the defects(type-1 &3 minimized and type-2 eliminated).
• Defect (type-1 &3) is eliminated by surface machining.
67
Microstructure of Ni 201
foils
Fig: Microstructure of two Ni 201 foils

deposited Al 3003 tapes
68
Microstructure of NI 201 foils
Ref.: Additive manufacturing
technologies(Ian Gibson, David
W. Rosen, Brent Strucker)
 Dissimilar metal foils can be bonded with distinct

interfaces, with a high degree of LWD and
without intermetallic formation
69
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Anisotropic due to anisotropic properties of metal
foils, the presence of defects, alignment of grain
boundaries at interface.
Foil-rolling.
Tensile strength is good in longitudinal direction, poor
in transverse direction and least strength is in z-
direction. 85% of published bulk tensile strength
property.
Longitudinal direction – higher than published bulk
property.
Anisotropic effect with respect to Design.
Interfacial plastic deformation increases hardness but
decreases ductility.
70
PROCESS PARAMETERS OF
UAM/UC
 Oscillation Amplitude
 Normal Force
 Sonotrode Travel Speed
 Preheat Temperature
 Metal foil thickness
 Sonotrode surface roughness
71
MICRO STRUCTURE AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF UAM
 Mechanical properties are anisotropic due to
defects
 Plastic deformation increases the hardness
 Decrease of ductility
 Original microstructure is retained
72
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF UAM
 Smoother Surface Finish
 Low Energy Consumption
 No Atmosphere Control
 Wastage
73
UAM APPLICATIONS
 Internal Features
 Material Flexibility
 Fiber Embedment
 Smart Structures
74
WIRE ARC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
(WAAM)
INTEGRATION WITH CAD AND CAAM
 The development of wire arc additive
manufacturing (WAAM) is being driven by the
need for increased manufacturing efficiency
of engineering structures.
 Its ability to produce very near net shape
preforms without the need for complex
tooling, moulds or dies offers potential for
significant cost and lead time reductions,
increased material efficiency, improved
component performance and reduction of
inventory and logistics costs by local, on-
demand manufacture.
75
 First patented in 1920, WAAM is probably the oldest,
outwardly simplest, but least talked about of the range
of additive manufacturing (AM) process.
 However, the advent of high quality computer aided design

and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) software has made AM in
general possible, with WAAM in particular being an area of
significant development.
 With a resolution of approximately 1mm and deposition

rate between 1 and 10kg/hour or more (depending on arc
source), the operating window of WAAM is between, and
complementary to, highly accurate but slower laser-based
systems and less accurate high-deposition-rate multi-arc
plasma and electron beam systems.
76
MAIN RESEARCH GROUPS IN WAAM
77
WIRE ARC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
 It works by melting metal wire using an electric arc as the
heat source.
 The wire, when melted, is then extruded in the form of

beads on the substrate. As the beads stick together, they
create a layer of metal material.
 The process is then repeated, layer by layer, with a

robotic arm, until the metal part is completed.
 Using wire as feedstock, the basic process has been

used to perform local repairs on damaged or worn
components, and to manufacture round components
and pressure vessels for decades.
78
CLASSIFICATION OF WAAM
PROCES
 Depending on the nature of heat source
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)-based
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)-based
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)-based
 The choice of WAAM technique directly
influences the processing conditions and
production rate for a target component.
79
CLASSIFICATION OF WAAM PROCES
WAAM Energy source Features
GTAW- GTAW Non-consumable electrode; Separate wire
based feed process; Typical deposition rate:
1-2kg/hour; Wire and torch rotation are
needed;
GMAW- GMAW Consumable wire electrode; Typical
based deposition rate 3-4kg/hour; Poor arc stability,
spatter
Cold metal Reciprocating consumable wire electrode;
transfer (CMT) Typical deposition rate: 2-3kg/hour; Low heat
input process with zero spatter, high process
tolerance
Tandem GMAW Two consumable wires electrodes; Typical
deposition: 6-8kg/hour; Easy mixing to
control composition for intermetallic
materials manufacturing
PAW- PAW Non-consumable electrode; Separate wire
based feed process; Typical deposition rate
2-4kg/hour;
Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering, NITW Wire and torch
80 rotation are
05/04/2024
WAAM EQUIPMENT
 Robotic and machine based system are two
types
 Robotic based system includes in capable
manipulation systems and CAD/CAM
software.
 Machine tool-based systems into which the
deposition equipment has been integrated
have additional potential to allow the
combination of AM and subtractive/cutting
(SM) processes in a layer-by-layer manner,
allowing features to be created and finish
machined
81
WAAM EQUIPMENT
82
THE COLD METAL TRANSFER WIRE ARC ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
(CMT-WAAM) SYSTEM.
83
COLD METAL TRANSFER (CMT)
MACHINE
84
MACRO SECTIONS OF (A) TI-6AL-4V, (B) AA4043, AND (C) IN718
WAAM WALLS
85
CORRELATION BETWEEN PROPERTIES
AND MATERIALS
86
QUALITY BASED FRAME WORK
87
PROCESS VARIABLES
 Wire feed rate
 Voltage supply
 Argon flow rate
 Weld speed
 No of layers
88
METAL TRANSFER IN MULTI-
DIRECTIONAL GMAW-BASED WAAM
 Free flight transfer can be further divided
into Spray, Globular and Repelled modes.
During Free Flight modes, the droplet
trajectory from the wire tip to the weld pool
is important.
 In short arc transfer, a droplet forms on the
wire tip during the arcing phase, but
material transfers when the wire tip contacts
the base metal. Droplets transfer to the weld
pool is influenced by the gravitational force
less
89
FREE FLIGHT TRANSFER & SHORT ARC
TRANSFE
The trajectory of the molten droplets (a) in Free flight

transfer and (b) in short arc transfer
90
FABRICATION APPROACH FOR
DEPOSITION
Demonstration of fabrication approach for (a) Horizontal

deposition, (b) Vertical-down deposition, and (c) Vertical-up
deposition.
91
3D model of the samples and Deposited near-net shape
92
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BENEFITS OF WAAM
 Production of large parts compared to powder
bed processes as robotic arm movement is free
to move
 Wire is Less expensive compared to metal
powder
 WAAM hardware is less expensive compared to
metal 3D Printers
 It can deliver near net shape components,
minimizing the need for surface finishing
 Good option for repair and maintenance
operations for specific components like
turbine blades, and also moulds and dies
94
LIMITATIONS OF WAAM
 Heat management is some what difficult.
 For materials like titanium the inert gas chamber is
required.
 It limits the size of parts that can be produced with
this technology and installing such chamber will
increase the cost of the equipment.
 Although a number of companies are developing
WAAM technology for the production of metal parts,
currently there is no commercially available system.
 However, collaborators such as Kuka Systems, Airbus

Defence and Space, FMC Technologies and other
companies are currently working to develop a
systematic methodology for WAAM
95
APPLICATIONS OF WAAM
 Aerospace - stiffened panels and wing ribs
 STELIA Aerospace, has recently
created aluminium fuselage panels with
stiffeners manufactured directly on the surface
 world’s first 3D prined ship propeller.
 The “WAAM peller” uses 298 layers of nickel
aluminium bronze alloy and was completed in
seven months
 WAAM can also be used in architectural
applications.
 MX 3D’s steel bridge
96
LATTICE STRUCTURES
 Lattice structures are a unique
class of space grid structures
composed of the inside struts with
a certain diameter and angle.
 Lattice structures have extensive
application in the aerospace field,
due to the combinational
advantages, such as light weight,
high strength, heat insulation,
shock absorption and noise
reduction
 At present, aluminum alloy The model (a) and physical
materials are widely selected to figure (b) of the pyramid lattice
structure.
fabricate lattice structures
97
The traditional manufacturing methods of metal lattice
structure include investment casting, plastic processing
method and combination of extrusion and electro-
discharge machining, etc.
However, these methods have high requirements of

material, and confront great difficulty in fabricating such
kinds of complex structures; it limits the design freedom
of material and structure for manufacturing lattice
structures.
In detail, investment casting requires liquid metal to have

great fluidity. Meanwhile, it is difficult to manufacture
low-density lattice structure with topology optimization
and complex structure.
98
 Combination of extrusion and electro-
discharge machining is only used for the
manufacturing of pyramid lattice structure .
 Furthermore, these traditional manufacturing

methods have complex technological
Processes that need to design a mold, and also
have a high cost.
99
 Additive manufacturing (AM) can be used to
fabricate lattice structures of any complex form by
depositing the material layer by layer, and it has
become a new method of manufacturing lattice
structure developed in the recent years.
 At present, the main methods for additive
manufacturing of lattice structures are Selective
laser melting (SLM) and Selective electron beam
melting (SEBM).
100
Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an
additive manufacturing technology that uses arc
as a heating source and selects wire as additive
material to manufacture complex components
layer by layer
WAAM is suitable for the fabrication of lattice
structures of any metal, which overcomes the
shortcomings of high requirement for fluidity or
ductility of materials manufactured by traditional
methods and high absorbance of materials
manufactured by SLM.
WAAM is also suitable for the fabrication of lattice
structures of any complex form.
101
Metallographic structure of the ER2319
aluminum alloy strut
Compression samples of pyramid lattice

structures.
102
Partition schematic of
lattice structure Manufacturing strategy for (a) the strut
part, and (b) the node part
103
4-D PRINTING
 4D printing is the process through which a
3D printed object transforms itself into another structure
over the influence of external energy input as
temperature, light or other environmental stimuli.
 4-dimensional printing (4D printing; also known as 4D
bioprinting, active origami, or shape-morphing systems)
uses the same techniques of 3D printing through
computer-programmed deposition of material in
successive layers to create a three-dimensional object.
 However, 4D printing adds the dimension of

transformation over time. It is therefore a type of
programmable matter, wherein after the fabrication
process, the printed product reacts with parameters
within the environment (humidity, temperature, etc.,)
and changes its form accordingly.
104
4D PRINTING
105
ADVANTAGES OF 4D PRINTING
 Size changing
 The most obvious advantage of 4D printing is that
through computational folding, objects larger than
printers can be printed as only one part. Since the
4D printed objects can change shape, can shrink
and unfold, objects that are too large to fit a
printer can be compressed for 3D printing into
their secondary form
 New materials= new properties
 Another advantage of 4D Printing technology is
the usage of possible applied materials. 4D
printing has a vast potential to revolutionize the
world of materials as we know it today
106
APPLICATIONS OF 4D PRINTING
 Self-repair piping system
 Self-assembly furniture
 Medical industry
 Fashion
107
108
5D PRINTING
 The name of this technology is quite
misleading, since 5D printing does not refers
to the addition of a fifth dimension of
printing.
 5D printing refers to 3D printing using a 5-
axis 3D printer, instead of the 3 axis used in
conventional 3D printing. Five-axis additive
manufacturing essentially builds the object
from multiple directions, thus producing
stronger parts than regular 3D printing.
109
3D VS 5D PRINTING
 In conventional 3D printing, the objects is

created by the addition of horizontal layers
deposited on top of each others. With 5D
printing, or 5-axis printing, the print bed is
capable of moving back and forth on 2 axis in
addition to the X, Y and Z axis of the 3D
printer, hence the total number of 5 axis.
110
111
INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID
MANUFACTURING
ADDITIVE
SUBSTRACTIVE
MANUFACTURING
MANUFACTURING
HYBRID MANUFACTURING
The purpose is to enhance their advantages and minimize their

disadvantages
112
113
114
115
DIRECTED ENERGY DEPOSITION
Directed Energy Deposition is defined as “an additive manufacturing process in
which focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are
being deposited”.
Fig. Directed Energy Deposition
Binding mechanism: Thermal

Fusing materials using a focused thermal energy source such as laser or electron beam
Commercial technologies:
Direct Metal Deposition (DMD), Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS)
116
 It is an advanced additive manufacturing technology used
to repair and rebuild worn or damaged components, to
manufacture new components, and to apply wear- and
corrosion resistant coatings.
 DMD produces fully dense, functional metal parts directly
from CAD data by depositing metal powders pixel-by-pixel
using laser melting and a patented closed-loop control
system to maintain dimensional accuracy and material
integrity.
 With the feedback system, six-axis deposition, and
multiple material delivery capability it can coat, build,
and rebuild parts having very complex geometries
117
ELECTRON BEAM MELTING (EBM)
Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering,

NITW 05/04/2024 118
ELECTRON BEAM AND LASER BEAM
119
120
121
122
123
ELECTRON BEAM MELTING (EBM)
Characteristic Electron beam melting Direcr Metal laser
sintering
Thermal source Electron beam laser
Atmosphere Vacuum Inert gas
Scanning Deflection coils Galvanometer
Energy absorption Conductivity limited Absorptive limited
Powder preheating Use electron beam Use infrared or
resistive heaters
Scan speeds Very fast, magnetically Limited by
driven galvanometer inertia
Energy costs Moderate high
Surface finish Moderate to poor Poor to moderate
Feature resolution Moderate Excellent
Materials Metals(conductors) Polymers, metals &
ceramics
Powder particle size Medium High
124
Powder Bed Fusion- EBM(ARCAM)
125
Powder Bed Fusion- EBM(ARCAM)
126
BENEFITS OF EBM
 High productivity
 Suitable for mass products
 No residual internal stresses
 Less supports are required for parts
 Possibility to stack parts on top of each other
 No gas contamination
 Very fine microstructure
 Good mechanical properties
127
DRAWBACKS OF EBM
 Used for conductive materials only
 Powder is sintered so tricky to remove
 Long dead time between two production
(some times 8 hours for cooling)
 Tricky to work with fine powder
 Expensive maintenance cost
128
WORKING OF DED
 Engineers download and edit the CAD file, adding
machining stock or hard-face surface geometry. The
updated solid CAD model is then sliced and tool paths,
identical to that used for CNC machining, are generated.
 Information is downloaded to the overhead three-axis
gantry machine similar to a CNC setup with travel in the
X, Y and Z axes.
 The process uses a variety of metal powders and metal
matrix composite materials, including conventional tool
steel alloys and special metals.
 Cooling rates are fast, resulting in a very fine-grain
microstructure.
 Hard faces are applied within an inert-atmosphere box,
filled with pure argon, that surrounds the work piece and
the machine nozzle.
129
DED SUPPORTS A WIDE RANGE OF METALS,
INCLUDING:
 Titanium alloys
 Stainless steel
 Maraging steels
 Tool steels
 Aluminium alloys
 Refractory metals (tantalum, tungsten,
niobium)
 Super alloys (Inconel, Hastelloy)
 Nickel Copper
 Other speciality materials, composites and
functionally graded materials
130
BENEFITS OF DED
 High printing speed: Typically, DED machines
have high material deposition rates. For
example, some DED processes can achieve a
speed of up to 11 kg of metal per hour.
 Ideal for repairing parts:
The ability to control the grain structure of a

part makes DED a good solution for the
repair of functional metal parts.
 Larger 3D printed parts: In contrast to
powder-bed metal AM processes, which
typically produce smaller, high-definition
components, some proprietary DED methods
can produce larger metal parts.
131
 Multi-material capabilities: With DED, powders or
wires can be changed or mixed during the building
process to create custom alloys. The technology can
also be used to create a gradient between two
different materials within the same build, achieving
stronger material properties for a part.
 High-quality metal parts: DED produces highly dense
parts with mechanical properties as good as or better
than those of comparable cast or wrought materials.
Parts produced with DED can also reach near-net
shapes, meaning that they will require little post-
processing.
 Hybrid manufacturing capabilities: DED is one of few
metal 3D printing technologies apt for integration into
machining centres to create a hybrid manufacturing
solution. By mounting a deposition nozzle on a multi-
axis machining system, highly complex metal parts
can be produced faster and with increased flexibility.
132
LIMITATIONS OF DED
 Low resolution: Parts produced with Direct
Energy Deposition tend to have low
resolution and poor surface finish, thus
requiring secondary machining which will add
time and cost to the overall process.
 No support structures: DED does not lend
itself to creating support structures, which
limits the production of parts with certain
geometries, for example, overhangs.
 Low dimensional accuracy
133
APPLICATIONS OF DED
 DIE REPAIR AND REFURBISHMENT

 THERMAL MANAGEMENT - cooling channels or
CoolMold™ technology, for injection molding and
aluminum die cast cavities.
 DIRECT METAL PROTOTYPES - Manufacturing
companies can now produce rapid metal prototypes
instead of plastic SLA (steriolithography) models.
 SURFACE MODIFICATION AND COATINGS - DED can
improve wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and
heat checking of part surfaces through the deposition
of a wear resistant hard-facing layer.
 AEROSPACE AND AIRCRAFT COMPONENT REPAIR - The
DED process is ideally suited for repair work in the
aerospace industry, due to the strong metallurgical
bond and fine, uniform microstructures it can produce
Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering, NITW
134
05/04/2024
REPAIR OF TURBINE BLADE BY LENS/DMD
135
POWDER BED FUSION
Powder Bed Fusion is defined as “an additive manufacturing process in which
thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed”.
Fig. Powder Bed Fusion
Binding mechanism: Thermal

Fusing materials by focusing thermal energy source such as laser or electron beam
selectively on a powder bed.
Commercial technologies: Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Direct Metal Laser Sintering
(DMLS), Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
136
Laser Material Interaction
 When electromagnetic radiation strikes a surface, the wave travels as shown

in Figure. Some radiation is reflected, some absorbed and some transmitted.
137
Laser Material Interaction
 If sufficient energy is absorbed, then the vibration becomes so intense that the
molecular bonding is stretched so far that it is no longer capable of exhibiting
mechanical strength and the material is said to have melted.
 On further heating, the bonding is further loosened owing to the strong molecular
vibrations and the material is said to have evaporated.
138
Powder Fusion Mechanisms
Sintering indicates the fusion of powder particles without melting (i.e.,

in their “solid state”) at elevated temperatures. This occurs at
temperatures between one half of the absolute melting temperature
and the melting temperature.
139
Solid-state sintering
• The driving force for solid-state sintering is the minimization of total free
energy, Es, of the powder particles.
• The mechanism for sintering is primarily diffusion between powder
particles.
Fig. Solid-State Sintering.

(a) Closely packed particles prior to sintering.
(b) Particles agglomerate at temperatures above one half of the absolute melting
temperature, as they seek to minimize free energy by decreasing surface
area.
(c) Prof.
As Adepu
sintering progresses, neck size increases and pore size140
Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering, NITW
decreases
05/04/2024
Solid-state sintering
• Since the time it takes for fusion by sintering is typically

much longer than for fusion by melting, only few AM
processes use solid state sintering as a primary fusion
mechanism.
141
Chemically-induced Sintering
• Chemically-induced sintering involves the use of thermally-
activated chemical reactions between two types of powders
or between powders and atmospheric gases to form a by-
product which binds the powders together.
• This fusion mechanism is primarily utilized for ceramic
materials.
• Examples of reactions between powders and atmospheric
gases include:
• Laser processing of SiC in the presence of oxygen, whereby
SiO2 forms and binds together a composite of SiC and SiO2;
• Laser processing of ZrB2 in the presence of oxygen, whereby
ZrO2 forms and binds together a composite of ZrB2 and ZrO2;
and laser processing of Al in the presence of N2, whereby AlN
forms and binds together the Al and AlN particles.
142
Chemically-induced Sintering
• For chemically-induced sintering between powders, various research

groups have demonstrated that mixtures of high-temperature
structural ceramic and/or intermetallic precursor materials can be
made to react using a laser.
• By adding chemical reaction energy to the laser energy, high-
melting-temperature structures can be created at relatively low
laser energies.
• One common characteristic of chemically-induced sintering is part
porosity. As a result, post-process infiltration or high-temperature
furnace sintering to higher densities is often needed to achieve
properties that are useful for most applications.
• This post-process infiltration may involve other reactive elements,
forming new chemical compounds after infiltration. The cost and
time associated with postprocessing have limited the adoption of
chemically-induced sintering in commercial machines.
143
Liquid-phase Sintering and Partial Melting
• Fusion of powder particles when a portion of constituents within

a collection of powder particles become molten, while other
portions remain solid.
• In LPS, the molten constituents act as the glue which binds the
solid particles together.
144
(a) separate particles,
(b) composite particles,
(c) coated particles, and
(d) Indistinct mixtures.
Dark régions represent the lower-
melting-temperature binder
material. Lighter regions represent
the high melting- temperature
structural material. For indistinct
mixtures, microstructural alloying
eliminates distinct binder and
structural regions
Fig. Liquid Phase Sintering variations used in powder bed fusion processing:
145
Full Melting
• Full melting mechanism is the most commonly associated

with powder bed fusion processing of engineering metal alloys
and semi-crystalline polymers.
• In these materials, the entire region of material subjected to
impinging heat energy is melted to a depth exceeding the layer
thickness.
• Thermal energy of subsequent scans of a laser or electron
beam (next to or above the just-scanned area) is typically
sufficient to re-melt a portion of the previously solidified solid
structure; and thus, this type of full melting is very effective
at creating well-bonded, high-density structures from
engineering metals and polymers.
146
3D (DMLS) PRINTED GAS
TURBINE BLADE
 3D (DMLS) printed gas turbine blade
147
Powder Bed Fusion
148
POWDER BED FUSION BENEFITS AND
DRAWBACKS
 The PBF processing of amorphous polymers has been
successful
 During part building, loose powder is a sufficient support
material for polymer PBF. This saves significant time during
part building and post-processing, and enables advanced
geometries that are difficult to post-process when supports
are necessary.
 As a result, internal cooling channels and other complex
features that would be impossible to machine are possible
in polymer PBF
149
 Low cost – Comparatively low cost. Manufacturing
cost has come down in the recent past due to the
price drop in powder bed fusion machines cost.
 No or minimum support – Mostly these do not
need the use of support structures as the powder
acts as an integrated support structure. But to get
more accuracy sometimes the bottom build plate
is used as the support.
 Wide material choice – A large range of materials
including ceramics, glass, plastics, metals and
alloys can be used to make 3D objects
 Powder recycling – Powder could be recycled in
some cases although to getter better parts some
time there is a need to preheat the powder which
might make the powder stick together
150
POWDER BED FUSION BENEFITS AND
DRAWBACKS
 Accuracy and surface finish strongly influenced by
operating conditions and powder particle size
 Finer particle sizes produce smoother, more
accurate parts but are difficult to spread and
handle.
 Larger particle sizes facilitate easier powder
processing and delivery, but hurt surface finish,
minimum feature size and minimum layer
thickness.
 With PBF processes, total part construction time
can take longer than other additive
manufacturing processes because of the preheat
and cool-down cycles involved
151
 Relatively slow and long print time – Powder preheating, vacuum generation,
cooling off period all adds to the build time making it one of the slowest in the
additive manufacturing
 Post-processing – Printed parts need to be post-processed before usage adding
time and cost
 Weak structural properties – Structural properties of these aren’t good compared
to other manufacturing processes due to the layer based manufacturing.
 Surface texture – Since the parts are made fusing metal powder together, surface
quality depends on the grain size of the powder and would be very similar to
manufacturing processes like sand casting, die casting etc
 Support build plate – Although technically it does not need supports, to avoid any
issues such as warping due to residual stress support may have to be provided.
Also, most of the printers use a build plate to build the parts .. hence needs post
removal and post-processing. This can be reduced by designing with that in mind.
 Powder recycling – The powder is expensive but even more expensive is throwing
out residual partially melted or unused powder. To speed up the print process, the
powder is often preheated. This means that some powder is affected by the heat
despite not being in the final part.
 Thermal distortion – Another problem, mainly for polymer parts, is thermal
distortion. This can cause shrinking and warping of fabricated parts.
 High power usage – Uses a lot of energy to create parts
152
APPLICATIONS OF PBF
 Medical
 Aerospace industries
 Manufacturing
 Automotive
153
APPLICATION OF PBF
 From an aerospace perspective, PBF
processes are finding much interest and use
for military and commercial aircraft.
Examples of this include the PBF
manufactured fuel nozzle on General
Electric’s GE9X engine, which is used on
Boeing 777 aircraft.
 The GE9X is the largest turbo-fan engine
produced and the additively manufactured
nozzle is five times more durable than
previous versions.
 The Boeing 777, with its two GE9X engines,
includes 300 additively manufactured parts
154
APPLICATIONS
155
156
NON BEAM BASED METAL
 Friction stir additive manufacturing
 Additive Friction stir deposition
157
additive friction stir deposition are ‘intensive’
processes that involve severe plastic deformation
at high temperatures.
 However, there are significant differences between
them. One is a hybrid (both additive and
subtractive) sheet lamination process involving
welding that results in microstructures
with cyclic variations.
 whereas the other is a purely additive process that
deposits a new track with each pass. With each
individual layer undergoing the same type of severe
plastic deformation during deposition and reheating
afterwards, additive friction stir deposition can
lead to a much more homogeneous microstructure.
158
A COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SOLID-STATE
AM PROCESSES
Process Process Friction stir Additive
Ultrasonic additive friction stir
additive manufacturing deposition
manufacturing
ASTM Sheet Sheet lamination NA
Classification lamination ( sheet thickness
( Sheet =1.5 mm)
thickness =0.1
mm)
Hybrid process Yes Yes No
Resolution Subtractive Subtractive Tool geometry
limiting factor process process
Temperature Relatively Low Relatively high Relatively high
Microstructure Similar to pre- Refined, equiaxed Refined,
processed in the stir zone equiaxed
only
159
COMPARISON TO OTHER
SOLID-STATE AM PROCESSES

COMPARISON TO ULTRASONIC
 Additive friction stir deposition is
fundamentally different in that it is a
material deposition process rather than a
sheet lamination process.
 In addition, the microstructure resulting
from the ‘intensive’ friction stir process is
dependent on dynamic recovery or dynamic
recrystallization, where as the ‘gentle’
ultrasonic process gives a similar
microstructure before and after fabrication
161
COMPARISON TO FRICTION STIR
additive friction stir deposition are
‘intensive’ processes that involve severe
plastic deformation at high temperatures.
 However, there are significant differences
between them.
 One is a hybrid (both additive and
subtractive) sheet lamination process
involving welding that results in
microstructures with cyclic variations where
as the other is a purely additive process that
deposits a new track with each pass
162
PATHWAYS TO WIDESPREAD
IMPLEMENTATION OF METAL AM
 For wide spread implementation metal AM
needs to possess a series of attributes ,such
as
 affordability to customers
 convenience and ease of use
 energy efficiency
 environmental friendliness
 wide applicability to engineering materials
 compatibility with mature technologies
 reliability of part properties
163
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS IN AM
 New product development (faster, cheaper, better, smarter)
 Touch & Feel to Functional Testing
 Enabler of Innovation
 Bio- applications (Medical, Dental, Pharmaceutical, Biological etc.)
 Newer materials development and characterization
 Rapid Tooling & Rapid manufacturing
 Geometric Modeling, data exchange and software issues
 Process improvements (cost, accuracy, finish, size, strength etc.)
 Development of newer processes, equipment and controls
 Development of newer applications (aerospace, electronics etc.)
 Process modeling and simulation issues
 Scaling issues (micro- and nano- )
164
 Thank you
165
INTEGRATION OF CAM WITH
WAAM
 To obtain the desired geometry, the CAM
software have to be able to,
 (i) do a slicing during the additive process of
the part with a variable deposit height in
order to take into account variation of the
deposition process and
 (ii) manage the deposition strategy at

intersection to output the position of the torch
166
 Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has the possibility to build
metallic
 structures in 3D space.
 WAAM system is based on welding process to deposit metallic
material and on a robot that moves the welding torch to add material
at a given position.
 For large skeleton structures, it was chosen to deposit material point
by point. Welding process induces fluctuations.
 To be fully scalable, two main features must be taken into account.
 First, monitoring of the process is necessary. Local control on the
geometry of the deposition must be used to reach the nal shape.
 Secondly, some deposition strategies must be implemented to

manage branch intersections. To reach these two objectives, an
adaptive and modular slicer and a process manager have been
developed in order to implement this control. It allows us, if an error
occurs during the deposition, to change the position of the eector.
167

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NON BEAM BASED

 It provides tremendous advantages compared

Source: Ian Gibson, 2010

 However, there are significant differences between

 whereas the other is a purely additive process that

Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical 05/04/2024 15

Hardness distribution of Al/SiC FG composite

Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical 05/04/2024 30

 This imposes a great barrier for widespread implementation of

 Traditional atomized powder feedstock can also be used without

 To qualify as viable feed materials for additive friction stir

A large window frame made of AA 6061

Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical 05/04/2024 37

 Eliminates the stair-stepping effects and layer-

 ultrasonic bonding,+ additive-plus-subtractive

 Over hanging structure : ?

 Fabrication procedure for a honeycomb structure

• Linear welding density (LWD) (bonded interface divided by the

Fig: A UC part made from four layers of

Fig: Aluminium foil

Fig: Ultrasonic consolidation

 Capable of producing complex internal features within metallic

 Honeycomb structures, internal pipes and enclosed cavities.

 This is possible due to CNC trimming is done before deposition of

 Internal feature also has certain limitation as top surface of the

 Hence we get stair –step surface geometry instead of CNC milled

 After completing internal feature we can enclose the internal

 Internal channels and Honey comb structure ?

we can use materials which are ultrasonically welded

The mostly used materials are Al alloys, Inconel 600,

Also we can use Metpreg - Alumina fiber reinforced Al

We can use metal foil as well as pre woven stainless

Using different metal foil it is possible to produce

Smart structure –sense, transmit, control, react to data

(a) Preparing base and cavity for (b) Placing sensor in

(c) Padding with epoxy (d) Enclose the sensor in

Defects in UC made of Al 3003

• Defect (type-1 &3) is eliminated by surface machining.

Fig: Microstructure of two Ni 201 foils

 Dissimilar metal foils can be bonded with distinct

 However, the advent of high quality computer aided design

 With a resolution of approximately 1mm and deposition

 The wire, when melted, is then extruded in the form of

 The process is then repeated, layer by layer, with a

 Using wire as feedstock, the basic process has been

The trajectory of the molten droplets (a) in Free flight

Demonstration of fabrication approach for (a) Horizontal

 However, collaborators such as Kuka Systems, Airbus

However, these methods have high requirements of

In detail, investment casting requires liquid metal to have

 Furthermore, these traditional manufacturing

Compression samples of pyramid lattice

 However, 4D printing adds the dimension of

 In conventional 3D printing, the objects is

The purpose is to enhance their advantages and minimize their

Fig. Directed Energy Deposition

Binding mechanism: Thermal

Prof. Adepu Kumar - Department of Mechanical Engineering,