Computer Aided Manufacturing

The word manufacturing derives from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus (make),
so that the combination means made by hand.
Production Systems
A production system is a collection of people, equipment, and procedures organized to
perform the manufacturing operations of a company. It consists of two major components:
1.Facilities. The physical facilities of the production system include the equipment,
the way the equipment is laid out, and the factory in which the equipment is
located.
2.Manufacturing support systems. These are the procedures used by the company to
manage production and to solve the technical and logistics problems encountered
in ordering materials, moving the work through the factory, and ensuring that
products
meet quality standards. Product design and certain business functions are
included in the manufacturing support systems.
Facilities

The facilities in the production system consist of the factory, production machines and

tooling, material handling equipment, inspection equipment, and computer systems that

control the manufacturing operations. Facilities also include the plant layout, which is

the way the equipment is physically arranged in the factory. The equipment is usually

organized into manufacturing systems, which are the logical groupings of equipment and

workers that accomplish the processing and assembly operations on parts and products

made by the factory.

Different types of manufacturing system:

Manual work system Worker-machine work system Automated work system

Manufacturing Support Systems
To operate the production facilities efficiently, a company must organize itself to design
the processes and equipment, plan and control the production orders, and satisfy product
quality requirements. These functions are accomplished by manufacturing support
systems— people and procedures by which a company manages its production
operations.
Manufacturing support involves a sequence of activities. The activities consist of four
functions

that include much information flow and data processing:

(1) business functions,

(2) product design,

(3) manufacturing planning, and

(4) manufacturing control.

Business Functions. The business functions are the principal means by which the
company communicates with the customer. They are, therefore, the beginning and the
end of the information-processing sequence. Included in this category are sales and
marketing, sales forecasting, order entry, and customer billing.

Product Design. If the product is manufactured to customer design, the design

has been provided by the customer, and the manufacturer’s product design department is
not involved. If the product is to be produced to customer specifications, the
manufacturer’s product design department may be contracted to do the design work for the
product
as well as to manufacture it.

Manufacturing Planning. The information and documentation that constitute the

product design flows into the manufacturing planning function. The information-
processing activities in manufacturing planning include process planning, master
scheduling, material requirements planning, and capacity planning.
Automation in Production Systems
The automated elements of the production system can be separated into two categories:
(1) automation of the manufacturing systems in the factory, and
(2) computerization of the manufacturing support systems.

Automated Manufacturing Systems

Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product. They
perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, and material handling, in
many cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system. They
are called automated because they perform their operations with a reduced level of
human participation compared with the corresponding manual process.

Automated manufacturing systems can be classified into three basic types:

(1) Fixed automation,
(2) programmable automation, and
(3) flexible automation.
Fixed Automation. Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing

(or assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. Each operation

in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or

an uncomplicated combination of the two, such as feeding a rotating spindle. It is the integration

and coordination of many such operations in one piece of equipment that makes

the system complex.

Typical features of fixed automation are

(1) high initial investment for custom-engineered equipment,

(2) high production rates, and

(3) inflexibility of the equipment to accommodate product variety.

Programmable Automation. In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the

capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations. The
operation
sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted

by the system. New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products.

Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include

(1) high investment in general-purpose equipment,

(2) lower production rates than fixed automation,

(3) flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product conffiguration and

(4) high suitability for batch production.

Flexible Automation. Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible automated

system is capable of producing a variety of parts or products with virtually no time lost for changeovers from

one design to the next. There is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering the

physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine settings). Accordingly, the system can produce various mixes and

schedules of parts or products instead of requiring that they be made in batches.

Features of flexible automation include

(1) high investment for a custom-engineered system,

(2) continuous production of variable mixtures of parts or products,

(3) medium production rates, and

(4) flexibility to deal with product design variations.

Reasons for Automating

1. Increase labor productivity

2. Reduce labor cost

3. Mitigate the effects of labor shortages

4. Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks

5. Improve worker safety

6. Improve product quality

7. Reduce manufacturing lead time

8. Accomplish processes that cannot be done manually

Manual Labor in Factory Operations

A number of situations can be listed in which manual labor is preferred over

automation:

Task is technologically too difficult to automate

Short product life cycle

Customized product

Ups and downs in demand

Need to reduce risk of product failure

Lack of capital
Even if all of the manufacturing systems in the factory are automated, there is still a need for the following kinds of
work
to be performed by humans:

Equipment maintenance

Programming and computer operation

Engineering project work

Plant management
Numerical control part programming by computers. Control programs are prepared
for
automated machine tools.
Computer-automated process planning. The computer prepares a listing of the
operation sequence required to process a particular product or component.

Computer-generated work standards. The computer determines the time standard for a
particular production operation.

Production scheduling. The computer determines an appropriate schedule for meeting

production requirements.

Material requirements planning. The computer is used to determine when to order

raw materials and purchased components and how many should be ordered to achieve
the
production schedule.
The product development consists of two process:

Designing the product CAD

Manufacturing the product. CAM
Fundamentals of CAD

Computer-aided design involves any type of design activity which makes use of the

computer to develop, analyze, or modify an engineering design. Modem CAD systems are

based on interactive computer graphics (ICG). Interactive computer graphics denotes a

user-oriented system in which the computer is employed to create, transform, and display

data in the form of pictures or symbols.

There are several fundamental reasons for implementing a computer-aided design
system:

1. To Increase the productivity of the designer. This is accomplished by helping the

designer to visualize the product and its component subassemblies and parts; and by
reducing the time required in synthesizing, analyzing, and documenting the design.
This productivity improvement translates not only into lower design cost but also into
shorter project completion times.

2. To improve the quality of design. A CAD system permits a more thorough engineering
analysis and a larger number of design alternatives can be investigated Design errors
are also reduced through the greater accuracy provided by tlead to a better design.
3. To improve communications. Use of a CAD system provides better
engineering drawings, more standardization in the drawings, better
documentation of the design, fewer drawing errors, and greater
legibility.

4. To create a data base for manufacturing. In the process of creating

the documentation for the product design (geometries and
dimensions of the product and its components, material

specifications for components, bill of materials,

required
data base to manufacture the product is also created.
THE DESIGN PROCESS

The process of designing something is an iterative

procedure,

which consists of six identifiable steps or phases:

1. Recognition of need

2. Definition of problem

3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization

5. Evaluation

6. Presentation
• Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for which
some corrective action should be taken.
• Definition of the problem involves a thorough specification of the item to be
designed. This specification includes physical and functional characteristics, cost,
quality, and operating performance.
• Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly iterative in the design process. A
certain component or subsystem of the overall system is conceptualized by the designer,
subjected to analysis, improved through this analysis procedure, and redesigned.
• Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established
in the problem definition phase. This evaluation often requires the fabrication and
testing of a prototype model to assess operating performance, quality, reliability, and
other criteria.
• The documentation of the design by means of drawings, material specifications, assembly
lists,
and so on.
THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS FOR DESIGN

The various design-related tasks which are performed by a modern computer-aided

design system can be grouped into four functional areas:

1. Geometric modeling

2. Engineering analysis

3. Design review and evaluation

4. Automated
drafting
 Geometric modeling

Geometric modeling corresponds to the

synthesis phase in which the physical design
project takes form on the ICG system.
 Engineering analysis

Engineering analysis corresponds to phase 4, dealing

analysis
with and optimization.
 Design Review Evaluation

Design review and evaluation is the fifth step in the general

design procedure dealinguation of the
design.
Automated drafting
Automated drafting involves a procedurere for converting the
design image data residing in computer memory into a hard-
copy document.
BENEFITS OF COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN

Productivity improvement in design

Shorter lead times

Design analysis

Fewer design errors

Greater accuracy in design calculations

Standardization of design, drafting, and documentation procedures

Drawings are more understandable

Improved procedures for engineering changes

Benefits in manufacturing
Computer-Aided Manufacturing

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) involves the use of computer technology in

manufacturing planning and control. CAM is most closely associated with functions
in manufacturing engineering, such as process planning and numerical control
(NC) part programming. The applications of CAM can be divided into two broad
categories:
(1) manufacturing planning and
(2) manufacturing control.
Manufacturing Planning. CAM applications for manufacturing planning are those
in which the computer is used indirectly to support the production function, but
there is no direct connection between the computer and the process. The computer
is used to provide information for the effective planning and management of
production activities. The following list surveys the important applications of CAM
in this category:
Computer-aided process planning (CAPP).

CAD/CAM NC part programming.

Computerized machinability data systems.

Computerized work standards.

Cost estimating.

Production and inventory planning.

Manufacturing Control. The second category of CAM applications is concerned
with computer systems to control and manage the physical operations in the factory.
These applications include the following:
Process monitoring and control.

Quality control.

Shop floor control.

Inventory control.

Just-in-time
production
systems.
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

Computer-integrated manufacturing includes all of the engineering functions of

CAD/ CAM, but it also includes the firm’s business functions that are related to
manufacturing. The ideal CIM system applies computer and communications
technology to all the operational functions and information-processing functions in
manufacturing from order receipt through design and production to product shipment.
The scope of CIM, compared with the more limited scope of CAD/CAM
Process Planning
The product design is the plan for the product and its components and
subassemblies. A manufacturing plan is needed to convert the product design into a
physical entity. The activity of developing such a plan is called process planning.
It is the bridge between product design and manufacturing. Process planning
involves determining the sequence of processing and assembly steps that must be
accomplished to make the product.

Process planning consists of determining the most appropriate manufacturing and

assembly processes and the sequence in which they should be accomplished to
produce a given part or product according to specification product
design documentation.
List of the many decisions and details usually included within the scope of process planning

• Interpretation of design drawings

• Choice of processes and sequence
• Choice of equipment
• Choice of tools, dies, molds, fixtures, and gages
• Analysis of methods

• Setting of work standards Choice of

cutting tools and cutting conditions
Process Planning for Parts
For individual parts, the processing sequence is documented on a form called a
route sheet (some companies call it an operation sheet). Just as engineering
drawings are used to specify the product design, route sheets are used to
specify the process plan. They are counterparts, one for product design, the
other for manufacturing.
 Computer Aided Manufa
By

Typical route sheet for specifying the process plan

Computer-Aided Process Planning
Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is the use of computer
technology to aid in the process planning of a part or product, in
manufacturing.
The benefits derived from CAPP include the following:
• Process rationalization and standardization.
• Increased productivity of process planners.
• Reduced lead time for process planning.
• Improved legibility.

• Incorporation of other application programs.

Concurrent Engineering and Design for Manufacturing

Concurrent engineering is an approach used in product development in

which the functions of design engineering, manufacturing
engineering, and other departments are integrated to reduce the
elapsed time required to bring a new product to market.
Concurrent engineering includes several elements:
(1) design for manufacturing and assembly,
(2) design for quality,
(3) design for cost, and
(4) design for life cycle.
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly

It has been estimated that about 70% of the life cycle cost of a product is
determined by basic decisions made during product design. These design decisions
include the choice of part material, part geometry, tolerances, surface finish, how
parts are organized into subassemblies, and the assembly methods to be used.
It is important for the manufacturing engineer to have the opportunity to advise the
design engineer as the product design is evolving, to favorably influence the
manufacturability of the product.

Terms used to describe such attempts to favorably influence the

manufacturability of a new product are design for manufacturing (DFM)
and design for assembly (DFA). It involve the syatematic conditions
of manufacturability and assemblability in the development of a new
product design.
 This includes
(1)organizational changes and
(2)design principles and
guidelines.
Organizational Changes in DFM/A. Effective implementation of DFM/A involves making
changes in a company’s organizational structure, either formally or informally, so that
closer interaction and better communication occurs between design and manufacturing
personnel. This can be accomplished in several ways:
(1) by creating project teams consisting of product designers, manufacturing
engineers, and other specialties (e.g., quality engineers, material scientists) to
develop the new product design;
(2) by requiring design engineers to spend some firsthand how manufacturability and
assemblability are impacted by product’s design;
and
(3) by assigning manufacturing engineers to the product design department on either
a
temporary or full-time basis to serve as producibility consultants.
Design Principles and Guidelines. DFM/A also relies on the use of design principles
and guidelines to maximize manufacturability and assemblability. Some of these
are universal design guidelines that can be applied to nearly any product design
situation.
In other cases, there are design principles that apply to specific processes.
Other Concurrent Engineering Objectives
Design for Quality: Design for quality (DFQ) refers to the principles and
procedures employed to ensure that the highest possible quality is
designed into the product. Procedures for achieving it must be devised
during product design and process planning. The general objectives of
DFQ are
(1) to design the product to meet or exceed customer requirements;
(2)to design the product to be “robust,” i.e. to design the product so that
its function and performance are relatively insensitive to variations
in manufacturing and subsequent application; and
(3) to continuously improve the performance,functionality
safety, and other quality aspects of the product to provide superior
value to the customer
Design for Product Cost. The cost of a product is a major factor in
determining its commercial success. Cost affects the price charged for the
product and the profit made by the company producing it. Design for
product cost (DFC) refers to the efforts of a company to specifically
identify how design decisions affect product costs and to develop ways
to reduce cost through design.
Design for Life Cycle To the customer, the price paid for the product may be a small portion of its total cost when life
cycle costs are considered. Design for life cycle refers to the product after it has been manufactured and includes
factors ranging from product delivery to product disposal. Other life cycle factors include installability, reliability,
maintainability, serviceability, and upgradeability. Some customers (e.g., the federal government) include
consideration of these costs in their purchasing decisions. The producer of the product is often obliged to offer
service contracts that limit customer liability for out-of-control maintenance and service costs. In these cases,
accurate estimates of these life cycle costs must be included in the total product cost.
What is Numerical Control?

Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which the process is controlled by
numbers, letters, and symbols. In NC, the numbers form a program of instructions designed for a particular
workpart or job. NC technology has been applied to a wide variety of operations, including drafting, assembly,
inspection, sheet metal pressworking, and spot welding. However, numerical control finds its principal applications
in metal machining processes. The machined workparts are designed in various sizes and shapes, and most
machined parts produced in industry today are made in small to medium-size batches.
Historical background

Conventional NC is based largely on the pioneering work of a man named John T. Parsons. In the late 1940s, Parsons
conceived a method of using punched cards containing coordinate position data to control a machine tool. The machine
was directed to move in small increments, thus generating the desired surface of an airfoil. In 1948, Parsons demonstrated
his concept to the U.S. Air Force, which subsequently sponsored a series of research projects at the Servomechanisms
Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

The Air Force continued its encouragement of NC development by sponsoring additional research at MIT to design a part
programming language that could be used for controlling the NC machines. This work resulted in the APT language,
which stands for Automatically Programmed Tools. The objective of the APT research was to provide a means by which
the part programmer could communicate the machining instructions to the machine tool in simple English-like statements.
 An operational numerical control system consists of the
following three basic components:
BASIC • 1. Program of instructions
• 2. Controller unit, also called a machine control
COMPONENTS unit (MCU)
OF A NC SYSTEM • 3. Machine tool or other controlled process
1. Program of instructions
The program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step set of directions which tell the
machine tool what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some type of input
medium that can be interpreted by the controller unit. The most common input medium
today is l-in.-wide punched tape. Over the years, other forms of input media have been
used, including punched cards, magnetic tape, and even 35-mm motion picture film. There
are two other methods of input to the NC system which should be mentioned. The first is
by manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit. This method is called manual
data input, abbreviated MDI, and is appropriate only for relatively simple jobs where the
order will not be repeated.
The second other method of input is by means of a direct link with a computer.
This is called direct numerical control, or DNC
2. Controller unit
The second basic component of the NC system is the controller unit. This consists of the
electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of instructions and convert it
into mechanical actions of the machine tool. The typical elements of a conventional NC
controller unit include the tape reader, a data buffer, signal output channels to the machine
tool, feedback channels from the machine tool, and the sequence controls to coordinate the
overall operation of the foregoing elements. It should be noted that nearly all modern NC
systems today are sold with a microcomputer as the controller unit. This type of NC is
called computer numerical control (CNC).
The tape reader is an electromechanical device for winding and reading the punched tape
containing the program of instructions. The data contained on the tape are read into the data
buffer. The purpose of this device is to store the input instructions in logical blocks of
information. A block of information usually represents one complete step in the sequence of
processing elements.

Another element of the NC system, which may be physically part of the controller unit or
part of the machine tool, is the control panel. The control panel or control console
contains the dials and switches by which the machine operator runs the NC system. It
may also contain data displays to provide information to the operator. Although the NC
system is an automatic system, the human operator is still needed to turn the machine on
and off, to
change tools (some NC systems have automatic tool changers), to load and unload the
machine, and to perform various other duties. To operator must be able to control the
system, and this is done through the control panel.
3. Machine tool or other controlled process
The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other controlled process.
It is the part of the NC system which performs useful work. In the most common example of
an NC system, one designed to perform machining operations, the machine tool consists of
the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls necessary to drive them. It also
includes the cutting tools, work fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed in the
machining operation.
 THE NC PROCEDURE
To utilize numerical control in manufacturing, the following steps must be
accomplished.

Process planning

Part programming

Tape preparation

Tape verification

Production
Process planning. The engineering drawing of the workpart must be interpreted in terms
of the manufacturing processes to be used. This step is referred to as process planning
and it is concerned with the preparation of a route sheet. The route sheet is a listing of
the sequence of operations which must be performed on the workpart. It is called a route
sheet because it also lists the machines through which the part must be routed in order to
accomplish the sequence of operations. We assume that some of the operations will be
performed on one or more NC machines.
Part programming. A part programmer plans the process for the portions of the job to be
accomplished by NC. Part programmers are knowledgeable about the machining process and
they have been trained to program for numerical control. They are responsible for planning
the sequence of machining steps to be performed by NC and to document these in a special
format. There are two ways to program for NC:
Manual part programming
Computer-assisted part programming
In manual part programming, the machining instructions are prepared on a form called a
part program manuscript. The manuscript is a listing of the relative cutter/workpiece
positions which must be followed to machine the part. In computer-assisted part
programming, much of the tedious computational work required in manual part
programming is transferred to the computer. This is especially appropriate for complex
workpiece
many geometries
machining steps.and
Usejobs with
of the computer in these situations results in significant savings
in part programming time.
Tape preparation. A punched tape is prepared from the part programmer's
NC process plan. In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared
directly from the part program manuscript on a typewriterlike device equipped
with tape punching capability. In computer-assisted part programming, the
computer interprets the list of part programming instructions, performs the
necessary calculations to convert this into a detailed set of machine tool motion
commands, and then controls a tape punch device to prepare the tape for the
specific NC machine.
Tape verification. After the punched tape has been prepared, a method
is usually provided for checking the accuracy of the tape. Sometimes the tape
is checked by running it through a computer program which plots the various
tool movements (or table movements) on paper. In this way, major errors in
the tape can be discovered. The "acid test" of the tape involves trying it out on
the machine tool to make the part. A foam or plastic material is sometimes
used for this tryout. Programming errors are not uncommon, and it may
require about three attempts before the tape is correct and ready to use.
Production. The final step in the NC procedure is to use the NC tape in
production. This involves ordering the raw workparts, specifying and preparing
the tooling and any special fixturing that may be required, and setting up the
NC machine tool for the job. The machine tool operator's function during
production is to load the raw workpart in the machine and establish the starting
position of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. The NC system then
takes over and machines the part according to the instructions on tape. When
the part is completed, the operator removes it from the machine and loads the
next part.
 N
COORDINA
C In order for the part programmer to plan the sequence of positions
TESYSTE and movements of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece, it is
MS necessary to establish a standard axis system by which the relative
positions can be specified. Using an NC drill press as an example,
the drill spindle is in a fixed vertical position, and the table is
moved and controlled relative to the spindle. However, to make
things easier for the programmer, we adopt the viewpoint that the
workpiece is stationary.
Accordingly, the coordinate system of axes is established with
respect to the machine table.Two axes, x and y, are defined in the
plane of the table. The z axis is perpendicular ane and movement in the
z direction is controlled by the vertical motion of the spindle.
However, in addition to the three linear axes, these machines may possess the capacity
to control one or more rotational axes. Three rotational axes are defined in NC: the a, b,
and c axes. These axes specify angles about the x, y, and z axes, respectively. To distinguish
positive from negative angular motions, the "right-hand rule" can be used. Using the right
hand with the thumb pointing in the positive linear axis direction (x, y, or z), the fingers of
the hand are curled to point in the positive rotational direction.

The purpose of the coordinate system is to provide a means

of locating the tool in relation to the workpiece
Fixed zero and floating zero
The programmer must determine the position of the tool relative to the origin (zero
point) of the coordinate system. NC machines have either of two methods for
specifying the zero point.
The first possibility is for the machine to have a fixed zero. In this case, the origin
is always located at the same position on the machine table. Usually, that position is the
southwest corner (lower left-hand corner) of the table and all tool locations will be
defined by positive x and y coordinates.
The second and more common feature on modem NC machines allows the
machine operator to set the zero point at any position on the machine table. This
feature is called floating zero.
Absolute positioning and incremental positioning

Absolute positioning means that the tool locations are always defined in
relation to the zero point.

Incremental positioning means that the next tool location must be defined
with reference to the previous tool location.
NC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS
In order to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and workpiece must
be moved relative to each other, hi NC, there are three basic types of motion
control systems:
1. Point-to-point
2. Straight cut
3. Contouring
Point-to-point NC
Point-to-point (FTP) is also sometimes called a positioning system. In FTP, the
objective of the machine tool control system is to move the cutting tool to a
predefined location. The speed or path by which this movement is accomplished is
not
important in point-to-point NC. Once the tool reaches the desired location, the
machining operation is performed at that position.
Straight-cut NC
Straight-cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to
one of the major axes at a controlled rate suitable for machining. It is therefore
appropriate for performing milling operations to fabricate workpieces of
rectangular configurations. With this type of NC system it is not possible to
combine movements in more than a single axis direction. Therefore, angular cuts
on the workpiece would not be possible.
Contouring NC
Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the most expensive type of
machine tool control. It is capable of performing both FTP and straight-cut
operations. In addition, the distinguishing feature of contouring NC systems is
their capacity for simultaneous control of more than one axis movement of the
machine tool. The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the
desired geometry of the workpiece. For this reason, contouring systems are also
called continuous-path NC systems. Straight or plane surfaces at any orientation,
circular paths, conical shapes, or most any other mathematically definable form are
possible under contouring control.

Computer Aided Manufac

By
APPLICATIONS OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

Numerical control systems are widely used in industry today, especially in the metalworking
industry. By far the most common application of NC is for metal cutting machine tools.
Within this category, numerically controlled equipment has been built to perform virtually
the entire range of material removal processes, including:
Milling Automatic drafting
Drilling and related processes Assembly machines
Boring Tube bending
Turning Flame cutting
Grinding Plasma arc cutting
Sawing Laser beam processes
Pressworking machine tools Automated knitting
Welding machines machines
Inspection machines Cloth cutting
Wire-wrap machines Automatic riveting
Following are the general characteristics of production
jobs in metal machining for which numerical control would be most appropriate:
1. Parts are processed frequently and in small lot sizes.
2. The part geometry is complex.
3. Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing.
4. Much metal needs to be removed.
5. Engineering design changes are likely.
6. Close tolerances must be held on the workpart.
7. It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be costly.
8. The parts require 100% inspection.
Advantages of NC

Reduced nonproductive time

Reduced fixturing

Reduced manufacturing lead

time Greater manufacturing

Improved quality control

flexibility

Reduced inventory
Disadvantages of NC

Higher investment cost

Higher maintenance cost

Finding and/or training NC personnel

 Class test 2
Q1.Write the part programming for the given figure
 CNC Part Programming

1 Manual Part Programming (G-Code)

2Computer Assisted Part Programming (APT) 3-
Part Programming Using CAD/CAM
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
APT: Automatically Programmed
Tooling.
APT is a three-dimensional NC programming
system.
APT is not only a language; it is also the
computer program that processes the APT
statements to calculate the corresponding cutter
positions and generate the machine tool control
commands.
Computer-Assisted Part Programming
In computer-assisted part programming (APT), the
machining instructions are written in English-like
statements that are subsequently translated by the
computer into the low-level machine code that can be
interpreted and executed by the machine tool controller.
When using one of the part programming languages, the
two main tasks of the programmer are:
(1) Defining the geometry of the workpart.
(2)Specifying the tool path and operation
sequence.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
To program in APT, the part geometry must first
be defined. Then the tool is directed to various point
locations and along surfaces of the workpart to
accomplish the required machining operations.

The viewpoint of the programmer is that the workpiece

remains stationary, and the tool is instructed to move relative
to the part.

To complete the program, speeds and feeds must be

specified, tools must be called, tolerances must be given
for circular interpolation, and so forth.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

There are four basic types of statements in the APT

language:
1. Geometry statements, also called definition statements, are
used to define the geometry elements that comprise the part.
2. Motion commands are used to specify the tool path.
3. Postprocessor statements control the machine tool
operation, for example, to specify speeds and feeds, set tolerance
values for circular interpolation, and actuate other capabilities of
the machine tool.
4. Auxiliary statements, a group of miscellaneous statements
used to name the part program, insert comments in the program
and accomplish similar functions.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

The statements are constructed of APT vocabulary

words, symbols, and numbers, all arranged using
appropriate punctuation.
APT vocabulary words consist of six or fewer
characters.
Most APT statements include a slash (/) as part of the
punctuation.
APT vocabulary words that immediately precede the
slash are called major words, whereas those that follow
the slash are called minor words.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Geometry Statements

SYMBOL = GEOMETRY TYPE/DESCRIPTIVE DATA

Points
P1 = POINT/20.0,40.0,60.0
P2 = POINT/INTOF,L1,L2

Commas are used to separate the words and

numerical values in the descriptive data.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Geometry Statements

Lines
A line defined in APT is considered to be infinite length in
both directions. Also, APT treats a line as a vertical plane that
is perpendicular to the x-y plane.

L3 = LINE/P3,P4
L4 = LINE/P5,PARLEL,L3
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Geometry Statements

Circles
In APT, a circle is considered to be a cylindrical surface that is
perpendicular to the x-y plane and extends to infinity in the z-
direction.
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P1,RADIUS,25.0
C2 = CIRCLE/P4,P5,P6

Planes
In APT, a plane extends indefinitely.
PL1 = PLANE/P1,P2,P3 PL2
= PLANE/P2,PARLEL,PL1
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Geometry Statements

Rules for formulating APT geometry statements:

1. Coordinate data must be specified in the order x, then y, then
z.
2. Any symbols used as descriptive data must have been
previously defined.
3. A symbol can be used to define only one geometry
element.
4. Only one symbol can be used to define any given
element.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example Part Geometry Using APT
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example Part Geometry Using APT
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example Part Geometry Using APT
P1 = POINT/0,0,0
P2 = POINT/160.0,0,0
P3 = POINT/160.0,60.0,0
P4 = POINT/35.0,90.0,0
P5 = POINT/70.0,30.0,0
P6 = POINT/120.0,30.0,0
P7 = POINT/70.0,60.0,0
P8 = POINT/130.0,60.0,0
L1 = LINE/P1,P2
L2 = LINE/P2,P3
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P8,RADIUS,30.0
L3 = LINE/P4,PARLEL,L1
L4 = LINE/P4,P1
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Motion Commands
The format of an APT motion command is:

MOTION COMMAND/DESCRIPTIVE DATA

Example: GOTO/P1
The statement consists of two sections
separated by a slash. The first section is the
basic command that indicates what move the
tool should make. The descriptive data
following the slash tell the tool where to go.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
At the beginning of the sequence of motion statements, the tool must
be given a starting point. This is likely to be the target point, the
location where the operator has positioned the tool at the start of the
job. The part programmer keys into this starting position with the
following statement:
FROM/PTARG
Where FROM is an APT vocabulary word indicating that this is the
initial point; and PTARG is the symbol assigned to the starting
point. Another way to make this statement is the following:
FROM/-20.0,-20.0,0
The FROM statement occurs only at the start of the motion
sequence.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands

Point-to-point motions

There are only two commands: GOTO and GODLTA.

The GOTO statement instructs the tool to go to a particular point location
specified in the descriptive data.
Examples:
GOTO/P2
GOTO/25.0,40.0,0
In the first command, P2 is the destination of the tool point. In the second
command, the tool has been instructed to go to the location whose coordinates
are x=25.0, y=40.0, and z=0.

The GODLTA command specifies an incremental move for the tool. To

illustrate, the following statement instructs the tool to move from its present
position by a distance of 50.0mm in the x-direction, 120.0mm in the y- direction,
and 40.0mm in the z-direction:
GODLTA/50.0,120.0,40.0
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands

Point-to-point motions

The GODLTA statement is useful in drilling and related machining

operations. The tool can be directed to go to a given hole location;
then the GODLTA command can be used to drill the hole, as in the
following sequence:

GOTO/P2
GODLTA/0,0,-50.0
GODLTA/0,0,50.0
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
Contouring Motion Commands

The tool's position must be continuously controlled throughout the

move. The tool is directed along two intersecting surfaces
until it reaches a third surface, as shown in the following Figure.
These three surfaces have specific names in APT; they are:
1. Drive surface. This surface guides the side of the cutter.
2.Part surface. This is the surface on which the bottom or nose of
the tool is guided.
3.Check surface. This is the surface that stops the forward
motion of the tool in the execution of the current command. One
might say that this surface "checks" the advance of the tool.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands

The surfaces in APT contouring motions that guide the cutting tool
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Motion Commands
There are several ways in which the check
surface can be used. This is determined by using
any of four APT modifier words in the
descriptive data of the motion statement. The
four modifier words are TO, ON, PAST, and
TANTO.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands

Use of APT modifier words in motion statements: (a) TO moves the

tool into initial contact with the check surface; (b) ON positions
the tool center on the check surface; (c) PAST moves the tool
just beyond the check surface.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
The modifier word TANTO is used when the drive
surface is tangent to a circular check surface.

Use of the APT modifier word TANTO. TANTO moves the

tool to the point of tangency between two surfaces, at
least one of which is a circular surface.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
In writing a motion statement, the part programmer
must keep in mind the direction from which the tool is
coming in the preceding motion.
The programmer must pretend to be riding on
the top of the tool, as if driving a car.
After the tool reaches the check surface in the preceding
move, does the next move involve a right turn or left turn
or what? The answer to this question is determined by
one of the following six motion words, whose
interpretations are illustrated in the following figure:
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands

Use of the APT motion words. The tool has moved from a previous
position to its present position. The direction of the next move
is determined by one of the APT motion words GOLFT, GORGT,
GOFWD, GOBACK, GOUP, or GODOWN.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
To begin the sequence of motion commands, the FROM statement is
used. The statement following the FROM command defines the
initial drive surface, part surface, and check surface. With
reference to the following figure, the sequence takes the following
form:
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,PL1,TO,PL2,TO,PL
3

The symbol PTARG represents the target point where the

operator has set up the tool. The GO command instructs the tool to
move to the intersection of the drive surface (PL1), the part surface
(PL2), and the check surface (PL3). Because the modifier word TO
has been used for each of the three surfaces, the circumference of the
cutter is tangent to PL1 and PL3, and the bottom of the cutter is on
PL2. The three surfaces included in the GO statement must be
specified in the order: (1) drive surface, (2) part surface, and (3)
check surface.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands

Initialization of APT contouring motion sequence.

 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
Note that GO/TO is not the same as the GOTO
command. GOTO is used only for PTP motions.
The GO/ command is used to initialize a sequence
of contouring motions and may take alternatives
forms such as GO/ON,GO/TO, or GO/PAST.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
After initialization, the tool is directed along its path by one of the
six motion command words. It is not necessary to redefine the
part surface in every motion command after it has been initially
defined as long as it remains the same in subsequent commands.
In the preceding motion command:

GO/TO,PL1,TO,PL2,TO,PL3

The cutter has been directed from PTARG to the intersection of

surfaces PL1, PL2, and PL3. Suppose it is now desired to move
the tool along plane PL3, with PL2 remaining as the part surface.
The following command would accomplish this motion:

GORGT/PL3,PAST,PL4
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Motion Commands
Note that PL2 is not mentioned in this new
command. PL3, which was the check surface in
the preceding command is now the drive surface
in the new command. And the new check surface
is PL4. Although the part surface may remain the
same throughout the motion sequence, the drive
surface and check surface must be redefined in
each new contouring motion command.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Motion Commands
The planes around the part outline can be
replaced by lines, and the APT commands can
be replaced by the following:
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL2,TO,L3
GORGT/L3,PAST,L4
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example APT Contouring Motion Commands
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example APT Contouring Motion Commands
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example APT Contouring Motion
Commands
Let us write the APT motion commands to profile
mill the outside edges of our sample workpart.
The tool begins its motion sequence from a target point
PTARG located at x=0, y=-50mm and z=10mm.
We also assume that "part surface" PL2 has been
defined as a plane parallel to the x-y plane and located
25mm below the top surface of the part. The reason for
defining in this way is to ensure that the cutter will
machine the entire thickness of the part.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example APT Contouring Motion
Commands
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL2,ON,L4
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOLFT/L2,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1,PAST,L3
GOFWD/L3,PAST,L4
GOLEFT/L4,PAST,L1
GOTO/P0
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming

Postprocessor and Auxiliary Statements

A complete APT part program must include functions not
accomplished by geometry statements and motion
commands. These additional functions are implemented by
postprocessor statements and auxiliary statements.
Postprocessor statements control the operation of the
machine tool and play a supporting role in generating the tool
path. Such statements are used to define cutter size,
specify speeds and feeds, turn coolant flow ON and
OFF, and control other features of the particular
machine tool on which the machining job will be performed.
The general form of a postprocessor statement is the
following:
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Postprocessor and Auxiliary Statements
POSTPROCCER COMMAND/DESCRIPTIVE DATA

Where the POSTPROCESSOR COMMAND is an APT major word

including the type of function or action to be accomplished, and the
descriptive data consists of APT minor words and numerical values. In
some commands, the descriptive data is omitted.
Examples:
UNITS/MM indicates that the specified units in the program are INCHES
or MM.
INTOL/0.02 specifies inward tolerance for circular interpolation
(OUTTOL/0.02).
SPINDL/1000,CLW specifies spindle rotation speed in
revolutions per minute. Either CLW (clockwise) or CCLW
(counterclockwise) can be specified. (SPINDL/OFF)
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
CUTTER/20 defines cutter diameter for tool path offset
calculation
DELAY/30 temporarily stops the machine tool for a period
specified in seconds.
FEDRAT/40,IPM specifies feedrate in mm/min or in/min as
specifies in UNITS statements. (FEDRAT/4,IPR)
RAPID engage high feedrate for next moves.
COOLNT/FLOOD turns fluid one (COOLNT/MIST)
(COOLNT/OFF)
LOADTL/01 used with automatic tool changing.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Postprocessor and Auxiliary Statements
Auxiliary statements are used to identify the part program,
specify which postprocessor to use, insert remarks into the
program, and so on. Auxiliary statements have no effect on the
generation of tool path.

Examples:
PARTNO is the first statement in an APT program, used to
identify the program; for example, PARTNO SAMPLE PART
NUMBER ONE
REMARK is used to insert explanatory comments into the
program that are not interpreted or processed by the APT
processor.
FINI indicates the end of an APT program.
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example:
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Example:
Drilling
Drill tool diameter = 7 mm
Tool number 1
N = 1000 r.p.m clockwise
Vf = 0.05 mm/min

Milling
End mill tool diameter = 20 mm
Tool number 2
N = 1000 r.p.m clockwise
Vf = 50 mm/min

Starting point (PTARG) at 0,-

50,10
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
Solution:
PARTNO DRILLING AND MILLING
UNITS/MM
CUTTER/20
PTARG = POINT/0,-50,10
P1 = POINT/0,0,-10
P2 = POINT/160,0,-10
P3 = POINT/16,60,-10
P4 = POINT/35,90,10
P5 = POINT/70,30,10
P6 = POINT/120,30,10
P7 = POINT/70,60,10
P8 = POINT/130,60,10
L1 = LINE/P1,P2
L2 = LINE/P2,P3
L3 = LINE/P4,PARLEL,L1
L4 = LINE/P4,P1
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P8,RADIUS,30
PL1 = PLANE/P1,P2,P3
REMARK Start Milling Operation
FROM/PTARG
LOADTL/02
SPINDL/1000,CLW
FEDRAT/50,IPM
COOLNT/FLOOD
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL1,TOL4
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOLFT/L2,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1,PAST,L3
GOFWD/L3,PAST,L4
GOLFT/L4,PAST,L1
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
REMARK Start Drilling Operation
RAPID
GOTO/PTARG
SPINDL/OFF
COOLNT/OFF
LOADTL/01
RAPID
GOTO/P5
COOLNT/FLOOD
SPINDL/1000,CLW
FEDRAT/0.05,IPM
GODLTA/0,0,-20
GODLTA/0,0,20
RAPID
GOTO/P6
FEDRAT/0.05,IPM
GODLTA/0,0,-20
GODLTA/0,0,20
 Computer-Assisted Part Programming
RAPID
GOTO/P7
FEDRAT/0.05,IPM
GODLTA/0,0,-20
GODLTA/0,0,20
RAPID
GOTO/P8
FEDRAT/0.05,IPM
GODLTA/0,0,-20
GODLTA/0,0,20
RAPID
GOTO/PTARG
SPINDL/OFF
COOLNT/OFF
FINI
Engineering Analysis of CNC Positioning Systems

The NC positioning system converts the coordinate axis values in

the NC part program into relative positions of the tool and workpart
during processing. Consider the simple positioning system shown in
the following figure.

Motor and leadscrew arrangement in an NC positioning system.