OBJECTIV 1.

Describe the chemical

ES composition
and properties of the
different
biological molecules
2. Discuss the synthesis and
formation of
the different biological
molecules
3. Discuss the importance/
significance/
functions of the different
FOOD is a SOURCE OF LARGE MOLECULES
that are needed for life called
BIOMOLECULES.
 I C A L
L O G S
B I O U L E
L E C
M O
• Also known as BIOMOLECULES
• Able to build body parts and
maintain biochemical process
BIOMOLECULES

ORGANIC INORGANIC
BIOMOLECULES

INORGANIC
BIO
M
A These are biomolecules which have
C
R a large size of 800 to 1000 daltons,
O high molecular weights and
M
O complex structures. They are
L biological polymers of different
E
C
simple or monomeric units.
U
L
E
S
BIO
M
A • Monomers are joined via condensation reaction
C to form polymer
R
O • Polymers can be broken down (or hydrolysed)
M via a hydrolysis reaction, which requires
O molecules of water to reverse the condensation
L process
E
C
U
L
E
S
 BIOMOLECULES
ORGANIC INORGANIC

BIOMACROMOLECULES

Lipids Protein NUCLEIC

Carbohydrates
ACID
Monomers: building blocks
• Most abundant source of energy

• Short term storage of energy

• components of other molecules

eg. DNA, RNA, glycolipids,
glycoproteins, ATP

• Sugar and starch

CARBOHYDRATES
• They contain large quantities of hydroxyl groups.

• The simplest carbohydrates contain either an aldehyde group (these

are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone group
(polyhydroxyketones).

• Derivatives of the carbohydrates can contain nitrogen, phosphates

and sulfur compounds.

• Carbohydrates also can combine with lipid to form glycolipids or with

protein to form glycoproteins.

• Carbohydrate is also involved as structural components in cells, such

as cellulose, which is found in the cell walls of the plants and chitin
which is main component of fungal cell wall.

CARBOHYDRATES
 COMMON NAME
• Carbs

• Sugar

• Glucose

• saccharides

CARBOHYDRATES
 ELEMENTS PRESENT

Carbon Hydrogen 0xygen

1 : 2 : 1
GENERAL FORMULA

Cn(H2O)n

CARBOHYDRATES
 MONOMER

• Saccharide- sugar

STRUCTURAL
FORM

CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES
 Dextrorotation
and Levorotation
 Dextrorotation and levorotation (also spelled as
laevorotation) are terms used to describe the rotation of
plane-polarized light. From the point of view of the
observer, dextrorotation refers to clockwise
rotation while levorotation refers to counterclockwise
rotation.
 A compound that causes dextrorotation is called
dextrorotatory or dextrorotary, while a compound that
causes levorotation is called levorotatory or levorotary.
 A dextrorotatory compound is a compound that
rotates the plane of polarized light clockwise as it
approaches the observer (to the right if you are
steering a car).
 Dextro means “To the Right”
 A dextrorotatory compound is often, but not
always, prefixed "(+)-" or "D-".

If a compound is dextrorotatory, its mirror

image counterpart is levorotatory.

That is, it rotates the plane of

polarized light counterclockwise
(to the left).
 It is entirely possible that an L- labeled compound is
dextrorotatory, however, so L- does not necessarily
mean levorotatory.

 For example, many L-amino acids are dextrorotatory

(Fundamentals of Biochemistry, Voet, Voet, and Pratt).
Two examples of dextrorotatory
compounds are D-(+)-
glyceraldehyde
and L-(+)-alanine.
 TYPES

• Monosaccharide
• Disaccharide
• Polysaccharide
• Oligosaccharide

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
the simplest carbohydrates and are often called
single sugars. They are the building blocks from
which all bigger carbohydrates are made.

• GLUCOSE : blood sugar (most abundant), energy source for cel

• FRUCTOSE: fruit sugar
• GALACTOSE: milk sugar
• PENTOSE: ribosome (sugar)

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
Monosaccharides have the general molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3, 5 or 6.
They can be classified according to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule:

n=3 trioses, e.g. glyceraldehyde

pentoses, e.g. ribose and

n=5
deoxyribose ('pent' indicates 5)
hexoses, e.g. fructose, glucose
n=6
and galactose ('hex' indicates 6)

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
Glyceraldehyde's molecular formula is C3H6O3. Its structural
formula shows it contains an aldehyde group (-CHO) and two
hydroxyl groups (-OH). The presence of an aldehyde group means
that glyceraldehyde can also be classified as an aldose. It is a
reducing sugar and gives a positive test with Benedict's reagent.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
GLUCOSE
• most important carbohydrate fuel in human cells

• The small size and solubility in water of glucose molecules

allows them to pass through the cell membrane into the cell.

• Energy is released when the molecules are metabolised

(C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O). This is part of the process
of respiration.

• C6H12O6
CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
GLUCOSE
Uses Of Glucose:
•The amount of glucose in the bloodstream is called
blood sugar or blood glucose. The body regulates blood
glucose levels with insulin, a hormone that pulls glucose
from the bloodstream and into cells to be used for energy.
• Problems can occur if this process is disrupted. For
example, in diabetes, the body doesn’t make enough
insulin or use the hormone effectively, which leads
to hyperglycemia, or high blood sugar. Low blood
sugar, or hypoglycemia, can also occur. Both high and
• Glucose may also be used to treat hyperkalemia (high
levels of potassium in your blood).
• Hyperkalemia is the medical term that
describes a potassium level in your blood that's higher
than normal. Potassium is a chemical that is critical to
the function of nerve and muscle cells, including those
in heart. The blood potassium level is normally 3.6 to
5.2 millimoles per liter (mmol/L).
• Glucose that a body need may come from simple and
complex carbohydrate sources.
• Glucose from simple sources includes white bread,
pasta, rice, candy, syrup, soda, and table sugar.
• Glucose from complex sources includes oats, wheat,
brown rice, vegetables, and whole grains.
 • Our body ideally uses glucose multiple times a day.
• When eating, our body quickly starts working to process glucose
and other carbohydrates.
• Enzymes begin to break the glucose and other carbohydrates
down with help from the pancreas.
• Enzymes begin to break the glucose and other carbohydrates
down with help from the pancreas. The pancreas, which
produces hormones like insulin, is essential to how the body
deals with glucose. When organisms eat, the body tells the
• Diabetes
pancreas might happen
to release when
insulin the pancreas
to manage doesn’t
the rising produce
blood sugar
insulin
level. the way it should. In this case, one may need outside
help (insulin injections) to process and regulate glucose in the
Overbody.
time, with insulin resistance, insulin levels may become low. The
Diabetes may also occur from insulin resistance. This is when the
body may also release fat from fat cells. In addition, the liver keeps
body’s cells do not sense insulin, and too much sugar remains in
releasing more ketones, lowering the blood pH to an acidic level.
the bloodstream.
When the body cannot use glucose like it needs to, the buildup of
When the body does not respond to insulin the way it should, it
ketones and change in blood pH may become dangerous. This event is
stops glucose from entering the cells and being used for energy.
known as ketoacidosis. It is a severe, life threatening complication of
The cells respond by signaling the creation of ketones, which
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
FRUCTOSE
• fructose is a ketose (a non-reducing sugar)
• It also has a five-atom ring rather than a six-atom ring
• C6H12O6

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
FRUCTOSE
Fructose is the main naturally found sugar in
honey and fruits (e.g. dates, raisins, figs, apples,
and freshly pressed fruit juices) and in small
amounts in some vegetables (e.g. carrots).
Fructose is like glucose a monosaccharide sugar
and the sweetest of all naturally
occurring carbohydrates
CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
FRUCTOSE
Uses of Fructose:
•Crystalline fructose is used in enhancing the taste in food
industries.
•It is used in flavoured water, energy drinks, low-calorie products,
etc.
•Fruit sugar is used in the manufacturing of soft moist cookies,
nutrition bars, reduced-calorie products etc.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
FRUCTOSE
Fructose is digested in the liver to produce mainly glucose (~50%),
and minor amounts of glycogen (>17%), lactate (~25%) and a
small amountoffatty
High intakes acids.may cause changes to the
fructose
energy metabolism of the body. Many of these studies are done in
animals, or are short-term trials in humans, with levels of fructose
much higher than consumed in an average diet. This approach
called hyper-dosing provides energy above normal needs and
causes an increase in blood lipids, which is a risk factor for
metabolic diseases like heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
GALACTOSE
• Galactose is composed of the same elements as glucose, but has a different
arrangement of atoms.
• Galactose is not an essential nutrient, which means you do not need to get it
from food to be healthy; galactose can be synthesized in the human body
from glucose.
• Glucose and galactose cannot be easily converted into one another
• Galactose cannot play the same part in respiration as glucose.
• C6H12O6

CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
GALACTOSE
Uses of Galactose:
•Galactose has been used in trials studying the treatment and diagnosis of:
 Hepatitis C
 Hepatic Cancer,
 Wilsons Disease
 Diabetic Macular Oedema
 Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis
•use in accelerating senescence in mice, rats, and Drosophila, for its association
with ovarian cancer, or even for the potential treatment of focal segmental
glomerulosclerosis.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
PENTOSE
• Ribose and deoxyribose are pentoses.
• The ribose unit forms part of a nucleotide of RNA.
• The deoxyribose unit forms part of the nucleotide of DNA.
• C5H1005

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
MONOSACCHARIDE
PENTOSE
Uses of Pentose:
•used in the synthesis of nucleotides.
•used in the synthesis of aromatic amino acids

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES

DISACCHARIDE
Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides. These form
when two monosaccharides react. Disaccharides are solube in
water. They are too big to pass through the cell membrane by
diffusion. Glycosidic linkage.

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

This is a hydrolysis reaction and is the reverse of a
condensation reaction. It releases energy.

• MALTOSE : glucose + glucose

• SUCROSE: glucose + fructose (table sugar)
• LACTOSE: glucose + galactose

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
DISACCHARIDE
MALTOSE
• end products of starch digestion
• an intermediate in the intestinal digestion of glycogen and
starch
• found in germinating grains (and other plants and
vegetables).
CHEMICAL
FORMULA:C12H22O12

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
DISACCHARIDE
SUCROSE
• colourless sweet-tasting crystals that dissolve in water
• occurs naturally in sugarcane, sugar beets, sugar maple,
sap, dates, and honey

CHEMICAL
FORMULA:C12H22O11

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
DISACCHARIDE
SUCROSE
USES OF SUCROSE
•Preservatives
•acts as a thickener in these and other foods, such as sauces
or marinades.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
DISACCHARIDE
LACTOSE
• form a β-1→4 glycosidic linkage.
• Systematic name: β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucose
• in solid form can either be in a crystalline state or in an
amorphous state.

CHEMICAL
FORMULA:C12H22O11

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
DISACCHARIDE
L A C TO S E
USES OF LACTOSE
•widely used as a filler or filler-binder in the manufacture of
pharmaceutical tablets and capsules

• filler or diluent in tablets and capsules, and to a more

limited extent in lyophilized products, infant feed formulas,
and a diluent in dry-powder inhalations

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
POLYSACCHARIDE
Is adding one unit after another to the chain until
very large molecules (polysaccharides) are
formed. This is called condensation
polymerisation

The properties of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:

•its length (though they are usually very long)
•the extent of any branching (addition of units to the side of
the chain rather than one of its ends)
•any folding which results in a more compact molecule
•whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled'

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
POLYSACCHARIDE
• STARCH- Starch is a carbohydrate commonly found in nature and one of
the primary sources of food energy for human beings. It is regularly eaten
in the form of wheat, rice, potatoes, and other staple foods cultivated
throughout the world.
• CELLULOSE- Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls, and is the
world's most abundant biopolymer. Cellulose contains apparently simple linear
chains of glucose residues, but these chains aggregate to form immensely strong
microfibrils.
• GLYCOGEN- Glycogen is a form of glucose, a main source of energy that the
body stores primarily in liver and muscles. The body needs carbohydrates from
the food in the form of glucose and glycogen.
• CHITIN- Chitin is the most abundant aminopolysaccharide polymer
occurring in nature, and is the building material that gives strength to the
exoskeletons of crustaceans, insects, and the cell walls of fungi. Through
enzymatic or chemical deacetylation, chitin can be converted to its most well-
known derivative, chitosan.
CARBOHYDRATES
• PEPTIDOGLYCAN- Peptidoglycan or murein is a polysaccharide consisting
 TYPES
CHEMICAL FORMULA:
(C6H10O5)n.
POLYSACCHARIDE
STARCH
• often produced in plants as a way of storing energy
• It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin.
• Both are made from α-glucose.
• Amylose is an unbranched polymer of α-glucose. The
molecules coil into a helical structure. It forms a colloidal
suspension in hot water. Amylopectin is a branched
polymer of α-glucose. It is completely insoluble in water.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
POLYSACCHARIDE
STARCH
USES OF STARCH

• It used in making foods for cattle, pigs and poultry and

humans.
• It is used in jellies and gum.
• It is used in medicines and candies.
• It is used in food thickener and paper.
• Carefully selected starches help make yogurts and puddings.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
CHEMICAL FORMULA:
(C6H10O5)n.
POLYSACCHARIDE
GLYCOGEN
• Is a glucose polysaccharide occuring in most mammalian
and nonmmalian, in microorganism, even in plants
• Readily mobalize storage form of glucose
• Can be stored in muscles (not shared by others), liver (can
be used by other organs)

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
CHEMICAL FORMULA:
(C6H10O5)n.
POLYSACCHARIDE
CELLULOSE
• Cellulose is a third polymer made from glucose.
• But this time it's made from β-glucose molecules and the polymer molecules
are 'straight'.
• These are much tougher than cell membranes. This toughness is due to the
arrangement of glucose units in the polymer chain and the hydrogen-
bonding between neighbouring chains.
• Cellulose is not hydrolysed easily and, therefore, cannot be digested so it is
not a source of energy for humans. The stomachs of Herbivores contain a
specific enzyme called cellulase which enables them to digest cellulose.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
OLIGOSACCHARIDE
oligosaccharide is a carbohydrate comprised of a few
saccharides, whose number of monomer units is not
rigorously defined.
has a longer chain of saccharide monomeric units
than a monosaccharide or a disaccharide. It is
relatively smaller than a polysaccharide.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
OLIGOSACCHARIDE
Oligosaccharides may be classified based on the
number of monosaccharides they contain.
Trisaccharides are Tetrasaccharides are oligosaccharides
oligosaccharides comprised comprised of four monosaccharides.
of three monosaccharides. nigerotetraose 4 glucose units joined by
nigerotriose – 3 glucose units α(1→3) glycosidic linkage
joined by α(1→3) glycosidic maltotetraose 4 glucose units joined by
linkage (1→4) glycosidic linkage
maltotriose – 3 glucose units lychnose (galactose-glucose-fructose-
joined by (1→4) glycosidic galactose)
linkage nystose (glucose-fructose-fructose-
melezitose (glucose-fructose- fructose)
glucose)
CARBOHYDRATES
maltotriulose (glucose-glucose-
sesamose (galactose-galactose-fructose-
glucose)
 TYPES
OLIGOSACCHARIDE
Pentasaccharides are Hexasaccharides are
those comprised oligosaccharides comprised
of five sugar units. N-linked of six sugar units. α-
oligosaccharides are Cyclodextrin is an example. It
mostly pentasaccharide. consists of six glucose units linked
via α-1, 4 linkages.
Heptasaccharides are oligosaccharides
containing seven sugar
units, octasaccharides contain eight, nonasaccharides have
nine, decasaccharides have ten, and so on.

CARBOHYDRATES
 TYPES
OLIGOSACCHARIDE
Oligosaccharides may be classified based on the
number of monosaccharides they contain.
Trisaccharides are Tetrasaccharides are oligosaccharides
oligosaccharides comprised comprised of four monosaccharides.
of three monosaccharides. nigerotetraose 4 glucose units joined by
nigerotriose – 3 glucose units α(1→3) glycosidic linkage
joined by α(1→3) glycosidic maltotetraose 4 glucose units joined by
linkage (1→4) glycosidic linkage
maltotriose – 3 glucose units lychnose (galactose-glucose-fructose-
joined by (1→4) glycosidic galactose)
linkage nystose (glucose-fructose-fructose-
melezitose (glucose-fructose- fructose)
glucose)
CARBOHYDRATES
maltotriulose (glucose-glucose-
sesamose (galactose-galactose-fructose-
glucose)
 TYPES
COMMON OLIGOSACCHARIDE
Raffinose is a trisaccharide formed from the combination of
three monomers: galactose, glucose, and fructose. It has a
chemical formula of C18H32O16. Thus, it is a trisaccharide. When
hydrolyzed with enzyme α-galactosidase, it yields D-
Raffinose occurs ingalactose
legumes,and
whole grains, cabbage, brussel
sucrose.
sprouts, broccoli, cottonseed, molasses of beetroot,
asparagus. Raffinose is just one of the members of the RFOs
(raffinose family of oligosaccharides). Other members
They include stachyose
are formed from(asucrose
tetrasaccharide), verbascose
with the ensuing (a of
addition
pentasaccharide),
galactose moieties donated etc. RFOs are abundant
from galactinol.
in plants and serve as desiccation protectants in seeds and as
storage sugars. It is also for transporting sugar in the phloem
CARBOHYDRATES
sap.
 TYPES
COMMON OLIGOSACCHARIDE
Storage oligosaccharides, such as fructooligosaccharides, are
common in plants. Fructooligosaccharides (also
called oligofructans) are short chains of fructose residues found
in many plants, especially in blue Agave plant, Jerusalem
artichoke, and yacón. Commercially, they are used as
sweeteners and food additives.
Galactooligosaccharide and human milk oligosaccharides
are dairy-derived. Galacto-oligosaccharides are
oligosaccharides made up of a short chain of galactose
molecules. Human milk oligosaccharides occur in breast
milk and are mainly composed of 2′-fucosyllactose (a
trisaccharide comprised of fucose, galactose, and glucose
C Aunits).
RBOHYDRATE S
 Dietary oligosaccharides are an essential energy source.
Fructooligosaccharides, in particular, are an important source
of dietary fiber. They are integrated into the human diet for
their prebiotic effect. They are extracted from plants that
They are also present inproduce
certain them.
edible fruits and vegetables,
such as bananas, leeks, onions, garlic, and asparagus. In these
plants, they serve as storage oligosaccharides. In humans, they
are employed chiefly as prebiotics.
Dairy-derived dietary oligosaccharides, particularly
galactooligosaccharides and human milk oligosaccharides, have
also the same role. Human intestines cannot digest them.
Rather, these oligosaccharides are passed through the large
intestine where they promote the growth of colon
bacteria, Bifidobacterium. These anaerobic microbes
have fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase, which is the
enzyme used to ferment them.
CARBOHYDRATES
TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES

1.Molisch Test
2.Fehling Test
3.BenedictTest
4.Iodine Test
5.Barfoed’s Test
6.Seliwanoff’s Test

CARBOHYDRATES
TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Molish Test
•is a general test for all carbohydrates. In this test,
carbohydrates when reacted with conc. H2SO4 get
dehydrated to form furfural and its derivatives.

•Objective: to identify carbohydrate from other

biomolecules

•Result Interpretation:
Positive Molisch’s test: purple color complex
Negative Molisch’s test: no purple color

CARBOHYDRATES
 TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES
Fehling’s Test
•Fehling’s test is one of the sensitive test for detection of
reducing sugars
•A
Objective: to detect
reducing sugar reducing sugar
is a carbohydrate that in a given solution
is oxidized by a weak oxidizing
agent (an oxidizing agent capable of oxidizing aldehydes but not
alcohols, such as the Tollen’s reagent) in basic aqueous solution. The
characteristic property of reducing sugars is that, in aqueous medium,
they generate one or more compounds containing an aldehyde group. All
 Non-reducing
monosaccharidessugar
areare stachyose,
reducing sucrose, verbascose, trehalose and
sugar.
 raffinose.
α-D-glucose, which contains a hemiacetal group and, therefore, reacts with
water to give an open-chain form containing an aldehyde group.
 β-D-glucose, which contains a hemiacetal group and, therefore, reacts with
water to give an open-chain form containing an aldehyde group.
 α-D-fructose, which contains a hemiketal group and, therefore, reacts with
water to generate an open-chain form, which, in basic medium, is converted to
 compounds containing
maltose, which containsana aldehyde
hemiacetalgroup.
group and, therefore, reacts with water to
generate an open-chain form containing an aldehyde group.
TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES
Fehling’s Test
•Fehling’s test is one of the sensitive test for detection of
reducing sugars
•Objective:
 A reducingto sugar
detectisreducing sugar inthat
a carbohydrate a given solution
is oxidized by a weak
oxidizing agent (an oxidizing agent capable of oxidizing
aldehydes but not alcohols, such as the Tollen’s reagent) in
basic aqueous solution. The characteristic property of
reducing sugars is that, in aqueous medium, they generate one
 or
Onmore compounds
heating an aldehydecontaining an aldehyde
or reducing sugar withgroup.
Fehling’s
 α-D-glucose, which contains a hemiacetal group and,
solution give reddish brown prepitate. Formation of red
therefore, reacts
precipitate of withoxide
cuprous water to give
denotes theanpresence
open-chain form
of reducing
containing
sugar. an aldehyde group.
Positive Fehling’s test: reddish brown ppt ( glucose, fructose,
lactose) CARBOHYDRATES
 TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES
BenedictTest
•is used to test for simple sugars such as glucose
•Objective: to detect reducing sugar ( carbohydrate having free aldehyde or ketone
functional group)
•Result Interpretation:
positive benedict’s test: color change from blue to brick red ppt ( glucose)
Negative Benedict’s test: no change in color( sucrose)

Color observed Sugar % Result interpretation

Blue Nil Absent of suagr
Green color 0.5% +
Green ppt 0.5-1% ++
Yellow ppt 1-1.5% +++
Orange ppt 1.5-2% ++++
Brick red ppt >2% +++++

CARBOHYDRATES
TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Iodine Test
•The iodine test is used to test for the presence of starch.

Result Intepretation
•Starch turns into an intense "blue-black" colour upon addition of
aqueous solutions of the triiodide anion
• In the absence of starch, the brown colour of the aqueous
solution remains.
Positive iodine test: dark blue color (starch)
Negative iodine test: glucose, fructose and sucrose

CARBOHYDRATES
TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Seliwanoff’s Test
•Seliwanoff’s test is used to distinguish aldoses from ketoses
•Acid, ketoses are dehydrated more rapidly to give furfural
derivatives and on condensation with resorcinol give cherry red
complex.
•The test will be answered by fructose, sucrose and other keto
containing carbohydrates.
Result Interpretation
Positive seliwanoff’s test: Fructose and sucrose
Negative seliwanoff’s test: glucose, distilled water

CARBOHYDRATES