Cartography& Map

Reading (GeES 2022)

“Maps are, in the final analysis, the way geographers think”. (Ronald
F. Alder, The Professional Geographer, Vol 40: 3, 1985)
* What is a map, and what is cartography?
* Knowledge representation
* The needs for maps
* What purposes maps can serve?
* What are characteristics of maps?
* What are categories of maps?
* Cartography versus Mapping:
* Meaning of Cartography and Mapping
* What is scope of cartography?
* What are different forms of knowledge representation?
* Communication, understanding one another, is essential and also is part of
our daily routines.
* If not in prehistory, the earliest ways of knowing and communication used
utterances and drawings to create the mental images involved in
understanding objects and their relationship.
* From these utterances and sounds developed the spoken, written natural
languages and mathematics of today, and the sketches evolved into present-
day graphics.
* These vehicles of thought and communication are forms of knowledge
representation.
* The use of written language is called literacy, while the use of spoken language is
called articulacy;
* Communicating with numbers is a way of symbolizing and dealing with
relationship among abstractions, sets, numbers, and magnitudes is called
numeracy or mathematics.
* Mathematics can range from abstract relationships to precise calculations.
* Graphicacy is another way of communicating.
* Graphic methods extend from drawing and painting to the
construction of plans and diagrams including images.
* The Graphics used to capture the spatial structure of the
environment is the subject of this course.
* Communicating with others by describing spatial relationships,
nearness or farness from a given reference, or inside or outside of
something, etc., we want our description to evoke a similar image in
that person’s mind.
* Thebest way to do so is to provide a visual representation of the
image.
* A saying that goes with this is “a picture worth thousand words”.
* Such graphic presentation of the geographical setting is what we call
a Map.
The answer to the question, “what is a map?” is that “ maps are neatly drawn,
bird’s eye views of the earth’s surface or beyond”.
They are drawn/graphical representation of features of the earth’s surface or
beyond.
This days maps exist in different forms: tangible or intangible, visible or
invisible (mental & digital maps that exist in human and computer memory
respectively), aerial photographs (e.g. orthophoto maps), and satellite images,
(like Google maps).
The conventional maps mentioned so far are only part of the contemporary
map picture that the definition of maps must include an extremely broad range of
“products”.
Some of these products show topics that are physical in nature (like road maps),
some show more social or cultural topics (like language maps), and some show
even more abstract subjects (like maps of income levels).
Maps are not limited to representing features of the earth’s surface but they
are used to showing features found on the moon or other celestial bodies;
They can be used to show patterns of the distribution of features that exist on the
ground or surface (e.g. topographic maps), under the ground (e.g. geological and
hydrogeological) or above the ground (e.g. weather maps).
Thus, given a variety of possible maps, a map may be defined broadly as “any
concrete or abstract images of the distributions and features that occur on or
near the surface of the earth or other celestial bodies” (Campbell, 1991).
 What Purposes Maps can Serve?
 Maps can serve many purposes:
i) Cartography is concerned with reducing the spatial characteristics of a
large area- a portion or all of the earth, or another celestial body- and put it in a map form to
make it observable.
 - As microscopes and telescopes used to enlarge microscopic things and enable to
see objects found at great distance, respectively, a map extends our normal range of
vision.
 - A map enables us see the broader spatial relations that exist over large areas or the
details of microscopic particles.
 -This is the fundamental function (instrumentality) of maps i.e. cartography helps to
bring a reality which is extensive into view.
ii) Maps are carefully designed instruments for recording, calculating, displaying, analyzing,
and understanding the interrelation of things.
things
iii) Regardless of variation in the type and size all maps have the same goal of communicating
spatial relationships and forms or patterns.
- Maps clearly preserve the locational attributes of spatial information, i.e. they
show the r/ship b/n one feature and another.
- They show not only the features and their location but show also extent and
spatial limits of phenomena; they are used to measure distances, direction and area
* - They are used to determine spatial patterns formed by many features on the surface of
the earth.
iv) Maps show not only information about physical and cultural features but also show
distributions of more abstract features- trade flow, use of communication,
extent of political influence, or areas occupied by peoples of various
races, languages, or religion.
v) Maps provide a major source of historical documentation and are used for
regional planning and property assessment purposes.
* Large scale or detailed map of a small region, can depict its landforms, drainage, vegetation,
settlement patterns, roads, geology, or host of other detailed distributions, communicates the
relationships necessary to plan and carry on many types of work such as building a road, a
house, a flood-control system, or almost any other construction requires prior mapping.
* Small scale or less detailed maps of larger areas showing floodplain hazards, soil erosion,
land use, population character, climates, income, and so on, are indispensible to understanding
the problems and potentialities of an area.
* Highly abstract maps of the whole earth indicate generalizations and relationships of broad
earth patterns with which we may study the course of past, present, and future events.
vi) These and others can assist researchers in the generation of hypotheses as to why
the existing spatial patterns emerged?
- What are driving forces behind such spatial relationships/patterns and what would
be the trend?
 Categories of Maps
As a result of the number of possible combinations of map
scales, subject matter, objectives and now form one can identify
couples of different map groups.
Consequently, there is an almost unlimited variety of maps.
I. Based on the definition that follows: “a map is any
concrete or abstract image of the distributions and features that
occur on or near the surface of the earth or other celestial
bodies”; maps may be classified as either 1) real maps or 2)
virtual maps.
1) Real map is any tangible map product that has a permanent form
and that can be directly viewed.
- In the digital world such products are often referred as a “hard
copy”.
- Conventionally drawn or printed products, items that were
traditionally called maps.
2) Virtual maps are related to real maps in one way or another and have qualities that allow
them to be converted into real maps.
They are divided into three types:
a) Images that can be directly viewed but that are not permanent; images
projected on computer screen of a cathode-ray tube (CRT).
- Such an image is real enough, while the computer is turned on. and the
information it shows similar or identical to that of real map except it
the image vanishes when it is turned off
b) Mental images are the conceptual equivalent of a conventional printed map.
- These are maps that we have in our minds.
- they provide us with an awareness of the location of places, r/ships b/n
places in terms of direction and distance, the size & characteristics of
regions, etc.
- They are called “ the environmental image, the generalized mental picture
of the exterior physical world held by individual.
- They are “quite unlike (real) maps… because they are personal,
fragmentary, in complete and presumably, frequently erroneous.”
- They can be converted into a more conventional real map by sketching its
image on paper.
c) Digital Map are maps produced by computers (in GIS environment or from RS data)
and stored in computer memory in digital form.
 Limitations of Virtual Maps: they have limitations that frequently make the use of
more conventional real maps a necessity.
 Moreover, ‘mental maps’ are inadequate as useful stores of locational information.
II. Categorized based on Scale:-
 Scale is a ratio between the dimensions of the map and those of reality
(ground).
 It shows the amount of reduction made in size when one goes from the reality
(ground) to map size.
 When a small sheet of paper is used to show a large area such as a map of
Africa or even the world on a sheet the size of a page, the map is described as
being small-scale map.
 If a map of one page size of a book used to show only a small part of reality,
e.g. less than one square kilometer area; it would be described as a large scale
map.
 There is no consensus on the quantitative limits of the terms small, medium,
and large-scale;
 There should not be reason why there should be for the terms are relative.
 But most cartographers would agree:
 Reduction ratio of 1:50,000 or less (e.g. 1:25,000) would be a large-scale map;
 Maps with ratios of between 1: 50000 and 1:1,000,000 would be considered medium-scale
maps;
 Maps with a scale of 1: 1,000,000 and or beyond would be referred to as small-scale maps.
III. Classed by Function:-
 Based on function and purpose maps serve one can recognize three main
classes of maps:
 1) General Reference Maps:
 The main objective is to show the locations of a variety of different features such as
water bodies, coastlines, boundaries, roads, contour lines, etc.
 They are supposed to serve a general purpose; they can be used people of different
background- engineers, agriculturalists, geographers, planners, etc.
 1.1) Large-scale general reference maps of land areas are called topographic maps.
 They are usually made by public agencies such as EMA, using photogrammetric
methods, and are issued in series of individual sheet.
 They are required for site location and other engineering purposes;
 Great attention is paid to their accuracy in terms of positional relationships
among the features mapped;
 They have the validity legal documents and are the basis for boundary determination,
tax assessments, transfer of ownership, and other such functions that require great
precision.
 1.2. Small-scale general reference maps are typified by the maps of states, countries,
and continents in atlases.
 Such maps show similar phenomena to those on large-scale general reference maps;
 But because they must be greatly reduced & generalized, they cannot attain the detail and positional
accuracy of large-scale maps.
2) Thematic Maps
 Thematic maps are also referred to as special purpose or single topic
maps.
 The show and concentrate on the distribution of a single attribute or the
relationship among several.
 They range from satellite cloud cover images to shaded maps of election
results.
 Thematic maps are typified by maps of precipitation, temperature,
population distribution, atmospheric pressure, average annual income,
cadastral maps, vegetation map, soil map, etc.
 They are referred so if they focus attention on the structure of the
distribution rather than on location.
 Otherwise such maps may be regarded as general reference maps rather
than thematic if they focus on location.
 Thematic maps may not be only small in scale, they can be large in scale.
 For example: there is demand for maps to show the structure of individual phenomena at
a level of detail suitable for making site-specific decisions like decision on ownership,
fixing tax, etc.
 Hence, such maps need to be relatively large scale.
 3) Charts
 These are maps especially designed to serve the needs of navigators;
 Maps used for navigation on sea (nautical charts) and air flight (aeronautical
maps) are called Charts.
 Charts differ from other classes of maps in that they are to be worked on while others
maps are to be looked at.
 On charts, navigators plot their courses, determine positions, mark bearings, and so on.
 Note that navigators also use general reference maps.
 Marine equivalent of the topographic map is the bathymetric map.
 Although not called a chart, the familiar road map is really a ‘chart’ for it is used to
navigate on land.
 It supplies information about route/road type, distances, road qualities, stopping
places, and hazards, as well as incidental information such as regional names and
places of interest.
 Note that there can be few “pure” general reference maps, thematic maps, or charts.
 Most of them combine functions:
 Topographic maps as general reference maps may have thematic components like vegetation cover,
elevation (relief), boundaries, settlements, etc.
 Likewise most thematic maps include boundaries, cities, rivers, and other basic reference information, so
that users can more easily fix location of the subject distribution.
 Hence, they have general-purpose as well as thematic functions, while charts more likely have one
specific function.
 Charts…
IV. Classed by Subject Matter
 Included in this class are maps identified by their subject
matter.
Several important categories may be recognized in this
class.
1.cadastral maps:
 Cadastres were drawings that accompany the official list of property owners and
their land holdings, while Cadastral map shows the geographic relationships
among land parcels.
 They are common and record property boundaries much as they did several
thousand years ago.
 The fact that cadastres are used to assess taxes may explain why cadastral maps
have always been with us.
 .
2. Engineering Maps (Plans):
They are closely allied with cadastral maps except they are more general
in nature.
Plans are in a category of large-scale maps.
They are detailed maps, sometimes called plans or engineering maps;
They are used to showing buildings, roadways, boundary lines visible on the
ground, administrative boundaries;
They are used for guiding engineering projects, such as bridges or dams, and as
aid to estimating the construction costs of such projects.
3.Flood Control Maps: are used to provide information about areas subject
to flooding’
They are derived from topographic maps’
Detailed and accurate terrain information is critical to determining such
areas of risk.
4. Landscape map: is another type of map derived from topographic maps;
It provides detailed site information and planting plans for gardens and parks.
You may sketch a map of this type for own use or may need to interpret
landscaping plans prepared by landscape architect.
 .
 There is no limit to the number
of type of
maps grouped according to their subject
matter;
There are soil maps, geological maps,
climatic maps, population maps,
transportation maps, economic maps,
statistical maps, cadastral maps, and so on
without end.
 Cartography and Mapping
 Cartography is about the making and study of maps in their all aspects.
 It is the artistic and scientific foundation of map making
 “Cartography is the art, science and technology of making maps, together
with their study as scientific documents and works of art.”
art.
 It is one of the branches of graphics for it is an efficient way of manipulating,
analysing, and expressing ideas, forms, and relationships that occur in two- and or
three-dimensional space.
 In broad sense , cartography includes any activity in which the presentation and
use of maps is a matter of basic concern.
concern
 This may include:
 Teaching the skills of map use involving map reading, analysis & interpretation;
 Studying the history of cartography;
 Maintaining map collections with associated cataloguing & bibliographic activities;
 Collection, ordering (organizing), and manipulation of data and
 Design & presentation of maps, charts, plans, and atlases.
 Cartography concerned with the philosophical and theoretical basis of the rules of map
making including the study of map communication.
communication
 All these involves highly specialized procedures and trainings.
 But all of them deal with maps.
 It is the unique character of the map as a central intellectual object that unites all
cartographers.
Mapping or map making refers to the
production of (tangible) maps.
It involves the aggregate of those individual and
largely technical activities (processes) of data
collection, cartographic design and construction
(i.e. drafting, “scribing”, display), reproduction,
etc., normally associated with the actual
production of maps.
Mapping then, is the process of designing,
compiling and producing maps.
The map maker may be called cartographer.
Cartography is like a drama played by two actors, the map
maker and map user, with two stage properties- the map
and the data domain (all information that can be put on a
map).
The map maker selects information from the data domain
and puts it into map format.
The map user then observes and responds to this
information.
There are four process in cartography:
 Collecting & selecting the data for mapping
 Manipulating & generalizing the data, designing and constructing the
map
 Reading or viewing the map
 Responding to or interpreting the information
 Cartography is in the midst of revolution in technology.
 Technological revolutions are not new in the history of cartography.
 But the contemporary one goes beyond the normal upheaval.
 It is caused by a universal use of electronics and, computers.
 The use of computer technology in cartographic process is referred
 to as digital cartography (contrasts to analogue cartography).
cartography
 The revolution is not only influencing the highly technical field of
 cartography but also affecting the relation b/n mapping and society
 in general.
 Cartography today. Analogue maps provided two important functions:
 i) Served as a storage medium of spatial information needed by humans;
 II) Provides a picture of the world to help us understand the spatial
 patterns, r/ships, and complexity of the environment in which we
live.
 The computer revolution in cartography preserves
the basic elements of cartographic science.
Satisfy each of the former functions, digital
cartography provides two other distinct products:
 i) The digital database is replacing the printed map
 as the storage medium for geographic information;
ii) Cartographic visualizations on many different
media now satisfy the second function served
previously by printed maps.
Today the computer hardware available to cartographic
scientists is capable of replacing all analogue methods used
previously in cartography.
 Software algorithms can nearly replicate all standard
methods; however some of the more subjective analogue
techniques, such as feature generalization and geographic name
placement,
placement are still rather crudely replaced by computer
software.
software
Cartography tomorrow. When the revolution is through the
science of cartography will have been transformed.
 Maps will not disappear, but they will take on new forms and
encourage new uses/users.
 Many new cartographic visualization is envisioned in the
future.
Likewise individual access to and use of very large spatial
database will become common place.
 The revolution has already run through punched cards and
magnetic tapes as media of choice, and we are now using floppy
disks, CD-ROMs, cassette tapes, optical disks and flash disks to
store and convey digital spatial data.
Undoubtedly, newer media will soon be discovered and
existing media will be perfected.
.
Implications of the changes.
changes
i) Cartographers are losing the control they exercised in
the past.
 When the print media was the sole product cartographers
were controlling every bit of information.
But now with the emergence of digital cartography and
GIS, cartographers are losing the control they
exercised in the past because with digital technology , users can select
the information they want to include in a
visualization.
ii) Thus , as the expertise of cartographers will be confined to codifying
the mapping software and data structures available to non-
professionals, the non-professionals role will be shifting to the earlier
map preparatory stage.
- The map user s on the other hand are taking on more of the actual
map production assignment.
iii) Professional cartographers placed a high
importance on scale.
 “ Always compile a map from
larger to smaller scales.” They follow the
same advice in digital cartography.
But individual users may adhere to it or
not.
iv) Many users of digital spatial data can be
accommodated by a file collected at one scale and used
for visualization at a range of scales including large
scales.
v) Such change in technology will generate new
requirements for data and greater knowledge on the
part of new users, which thus demand an expanded
emphasis on cartographic education.
 vi) The need for data standards.
Local units will feed data to central (state, national,
global) coordinating organizations.
 Such organizations must be responsible for setting
data standards and distribution.
 Standards are needed for data quality, data exchange,
hardware and software interoperability, and data
collection procedures.
 Hence, knowledge of data model, features, attributes
and data set lineage are some of the concepts
cartographers must learn.
vii) The need to reorganize cartographic institutions. To
efficiently provide the two principal cartographic
products- the database & visualization- cartographers
will have to reorganize cartography institutions.
*Communication is the transfer of knowledge, ideas,
information, ir in one word message from one person to
another.
*Communication in its most general sense, is a chain of
events in which the significant link is a message.
*The chain connects a source that originates and a
destination that interprets the message.
*The process of communication involves the production,
transmission, and reception of messages.
*Messages are events that signify other events,
*Messages are formally coded, symbolic, or
representational pattern of some significance in a culture.
*
*Culture may be broadly conceived as any
system in which the massagers cultivate and
regulate relationships.
* In
human culture and in the conduct of man’s life and society,
communication plays its most complex and destinctive part.
* Man’s hand, brain, eyes, ears and mouth are chief organic means
of communication and intelligence.
 A typical communications network in its
simplest form consists of a source, a channel
that conveys the message and a recipient who
receives the message.
 Signal

SOURCE ENCODER CHANNEL DECODER RECIPIENT

NOISE

Model of Typical Communication System

 In everyday terms, using spoken language as an
illustration, a speaking person may be the source,
the voice mechanism will be the encoder, the
sound waves generated will be the channel, and
the ear-brain capabilities of the listener will be
the decoder,
decoder transforming the sound waves back into
thoughts.
A distracting but an inevitable part of every
communication system is an element generally called
noise.
Noise is any unwanted attribute in the signal-
channel portion of the system that interferes with the
efficiency of the transmission, such as static in radio
and snow and distortions on TV screens.
 The Academic Study of Communication
 Communication has existed since the beginning of
human beings, but it was not until the 20th century that
people began to study the process.
 As communication technologies developed, so did the
serious study of communication.
 When World War I ended, the interest in studying
communication intensified.
 The social-science study was fully recognized as a
legitimate discipline after World War II.
Before becoming simply communication, or
communication studies, the discipline was formed from
three other major studies: psychology, sociology, and
anthropology.
Psychology is the study of human behavior, Sociology is the
study of society and social process, and anthropology is the
study of communication as a factor which develops,
maintains, and changes culture.
 Communication studies focus on communication as central
to the human experience, which involves understanding how
people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting
messages.
[Communication Theory has one universal law posited by S.
F. Scudder (1980).
The Universal Communication Law states that, "All living
entities, beings and creatures communicate."
All life communicates through movements, sounds,
reactions, physical changes, gestures, languages, and breath.
Communication is a means of survival.
 Examples - the cry of a child (communicating that it is
hungry, hurt, or cold);
 the browning of a leaf (communicating that it is dehydrated,
thirsty per se, or dying);
the cry of an animal (communicating that it is injured, hungry,
or angry).
Everything living communicates in its quest for survival."
Cartographic Communication System
 In the realms of maps communication takes place b/n the
cartographer and the map user via the map.
 Thus, maps are medium of communication.
 In the cartographic communication process the real world
is the source, the encoding is the symbolism of the map, and
the signal is the two dimensional graphic pattern created
by the symbols.
 The signal consists of the light rays transmitted through
the channel space to the decoder, which is the eye-mind
mechanism of the recipient.
Noise is anything in the signal or channel that interfer with
the transmission, such as distracting graphic patterns on
the map or poor lighting, which decreases visibility.
 Models of Cartographic Communication
System

Real Recipient’s
Cartographers
World Map Conception
Conception

Any thing that adversely interferes with map

communication and distract graphic patterns on the
map such as poor lighting which lowers visibility and
lack of map use/reading skills, and poor drawing are
called Noise.
Sources of possible noises Examples of possible noises
Data Collection Collects incomplete or wrong data
Use of wrong concepts
Making wrong generalization e.g. In classification

Map editor Makes wrong choice of data

Wrongly defined purposes
Includes too much or too little information
Cartographic designer Selecting wrong visual variables
Design wrong symbols
Applies overpowering lettering
Cartographic draftsman Produces poor line quality
Places text incorrectly
Reproduction Specialist Produces poor quality products
Produces low quality printing
Map user Does not detect all relevant information
Had no adequate background knowledge
Gives wrong interpretation to information
 Chapter 3: What Does Mapping Involve?

Mapping is atechnical process producing and

reproducing maps.
It involves
defining scale of a map (reduction),
data collection & processing,
map projection,
generalization,
symbolization,
map design and construction (production) and
 reproduction &
Distribution.
 Chapter Three
3.1. Map Scale: Maps are Reduced Graphical Representations

All maps are reduced graphical representations of an

area.
Hence geographical maps are reductions.
Hence, a map is smaller than the region it represents.
A map has a defined dimensional relationship between
reality and the map.
This relationship is called scale. Because of he relative
“scarcity and or poverty” of map space, the scale sets a
limit on the information that can be included.
Detail of map information depends on scale of the map.
 Scale varies b/n 0 and 1.
 It is a fraction less than one but more than 0.
 0<S<1
 Scale can get smaller but can never be equal to
zero. 0 1
S
 Like wise it can get larger but it cannot be equal
to one.
 Because there is no live size representation.
 The other important thing one should bear in
mind is that maps are drawn to scale but “the”
scale may not be the same all over a map.
 It can be same however at a point, along a line or
two (standard line(s))
Graphical:
Verbal (Statement scale): One inch
represents one mile
Representative Fraction (RF):
1:24,000
Areal (Linear) scale
Variable Scale

39
Since maps represent large areas, they cannot be drawn the
same size as the real area on the ground. Maps are drawn
small in comparison, but they still give us the actual area
they cover on the ground and the same distance between
places.
In order to do this, a map uses a scale.
Accurate maps are, therefore, normally drawn to scale.
A scale is a relationship between map distance and actual
ground distance.
 For example 1 centimeter distance measured on the map represents
1 kilometer distance measured on the ground.
 So when you measure 1 centimeter on the map, the actual distance
on the ground represented will be 1 kilometer.
1) The statement scale;
The statement scale is when you make a
statement saying what the distance on the map
represents on the ground.
You may say 1 centimeter measured on the map represents 1
kilometer measured on the ground or 1 centimeter to 1
kilometer.
Notice that the statements mention two distances. The
smaller distance refers to the map and the larger distance
refers to the ground.
For the statement scale, the distance on the ground is
always given in kilometers or meters. Thus, in this case, the
distance of 1 cm on the map represents a distance of 1
kilometer on the ground.
2) The Representative Fraction (R. F.):
 The scale is given as a fraction: 1/10 or as a ratio: 1:10.
What it means is that one unit measured on the map stands
for ten of the same units on the ground.
You can use any units that you are familiar with.
So, you can say 1 centimeter represents 10 cm.
On most maps, the Representative Fraction is given as a
ratio, which is usually 1:50,000 on topographic maps.
Note that the larger the Representative Fraction
denominator, the smaller the scale and the less detail that can
be shown.
A scale of 1:25 000 will show more detail than a scale of
1:100000.
 The smaller the denominator of the Representative
Fraction, the larger the scale, and more detail can be shown
3) The linear scale or line-scale or Graphical Scale:
 This is the most common scale used for maps and you need to
really know how to use it.
This is a special ruler that is drawn below a map that can be
used to measure an area or distance.
It is divided into a number of equal parts.
The divisions on the line scale measure map distances and the
labeling will give you the distance on the ground.
 Primaries divisions are divisions to the right of zero – each
scale division represents a distance of 1 kilometer.
Secondary divisions are to the left of zero – the distance
representing 1 km is shown.
Small scale = large area
Small scale = large denominator (1:1,000,000)
Large scale = small area
Large scale = small denominator (1:24,000)

Large Scale Vs.

Small Scale:
As scale gets smaller
the geographic area
covered gets larger.

44
•Smaller scale means fewer features
•Smaller scale means smoother features
•Smaller scale means combining features
•Smaller scale means displacing features
Data Aggregation

It is not advisable to enlarge

a map from small scale
to large scle for it involves
exaggeration of errors
45
 Chapter Four: Map Projection
 All maps involve geometrical transformations.
 It is common in mapping to transform a spherical surface
of the earth to a surface that is easier to work with such as
a computer screen or a flat map sheet, which are plane (2-
dimensional) surfaces.
 Such a systematic transformation is called a map
projection.
 The choice of a map projection affects how a map
should be used.
 It is often convenient to use map referencing systems
called plane coordinate grids. Coordinate systems
depend on map projections for their accuracy.
 Cartographic Use of Sphere, Ellipsoid &
Geoid
 What is the shape of the earth?
 Mapping involves specifying geographic locations of
features on the earth and transforming these locations on a
flat map through use of a map projection.
 Geographic locations are specified by geographic
coordinates called latitudes and longitudes.
 To establish a system of geographic coordinates for the
earth, we 1st must know shape and size of the earth.
 The earth is very ‘smooth’ geometrical figure.
 The earth’s surface appears rugged and rough, but the
irregularities even the highest peaks and ocean trenches
are barely noticeable on the smoothly curving surface.
 On the earth reduced to a ‘sea level’ ball (globe) of 25.4 cm
in diameter [S = 24.5cm/(6378 x 2= 12756km= 1275600000
cm)= 1: 52 000 000] in diameter.
 Mt Everest would be but a 0.176 mm bump and the Mariana
Trench would appear only a 0.218 mm scratch on the ball.
 As the earth’s average land elevation & ocean depth is much
less than these extremes ,
we are safe in saying that if the earth were the size of a
bowling ball.
 it would be smoother than any bowling ball yet made!
 Depend on the scale of reductions to be made three ever more
accurate approximations can be made to the earth’s shape: the
sphere, the ellipsoid, and the geoid.
 Spherical earth. Most educated people in the ancient world (e.g.
Pythagoras 6th C. B.C.) regarded the shape of the earth as ‘sphere’ b/c
sphere considered as a perfect shape.
 In the 4th Century B.C. however Aristotle argued for spherical shape of the
earth b/c he noted that sailing ships always disappear from view hull
(body) first then mast (flagstaff) last, rather than becoming ever smaller
dots on the horizon of a flat earth.
 Astronomical observations , shadow of the earth cast on the sun or moon
during eclipses were powerful evidences.
 Hence, the sphere shape of the earth prevailed and widely accepted in
ancient Greece.
 The size of the earth was calculated for the 1st time by Eratosthenes, a
Greek scholar who was head of Egyptian library in Alexanderia in 250 B.C.
 His calculation (46,250 km) was very much close to the present day figure
of about 40000 km. (The central angle formed at the centre subtended by
arc distance b/n Syne and Alexanderia was 7012’ (1/50th of 3600 = 800
km).
 His figure was about only 15% too large.
 The earth is not a perfect sphere, rather it is slightly ellipsoidal in shape.
 However, cartographers use a sphere of the same surface area as the
ellipsoid called an authalic sphere, as basic figure for small scale mapping.
 The dimension of the most recently determined authalic sphere is 6371
km radius and a circumference of 40o30.2 km.
 Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC[) was a Greek
mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer, and music theorist.
He was a man of learning, becoming the chief librarian at the
Library of Alexandria. He invented the discipline of geography,
including the terminology used today.
He is best known for being the first person to calculate the
circumference of the Earth, which he did by applying a measuring
system using stadia, a standard unit of measure during that time
period.
His calculation was remarkably accurate. He was also the first to
calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis (again with remarkable
accuracy).
Additionally, he may have accurately calculated the distance from
the Earth to the Sun and invented the leap day.
He created the first map of the world, incorporating parallels and
meridians based on the available geographic knowledge of his era.
 Measurement of the Earth's circumference
 Illustration showing a portion of the globe showing a part of the African continent.
 The sunbeams shown as two rays hitting the ground at Syene and Alexandria.
 Angle of sunbeam and the gnomons (vertical pole) is shown at Alexandria, which
allowed Eratosthenes' estimates of radius and circumference of Earth.
 Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth without leaving Egypt.
 He knew that at local noon on the summer solstice in Syene (modern Aswan,
Egypt), the Sun was directly overhead. (Syene is at latitude 24°05′ North, near to
the Tropic of Cancer, which was 23°42′ North in 100 BC).
 He knew this because the shadow of someone looking down a deep well at that
time in Syene blocked the reflection of the Sun on the water.
 He measured the Sun's angle of elevation at noon on the same day in Alexandria.
The method of measurement was to make a scale drawing of that right triangle
with the vertical rod and its shadow as its legs and to measure the acute angle
subtending to the shadow. This turned out to be about 7°, or 1/50th of the way
around a circle.
 Taking the Earth as spherical, and knowing both the distance and direction of
Syene, he concluded that the Earth's circumference was fifty times that distance.
 N. P.

The Geometrical Relationships that SUN

Alexandri
82 48’
0 0

Eratosthenes Established to Calculate the a

90
T. Cancer
Circumference of the Earth. 70
0
Syene/Aswan
Equato 12’
r
 Ellipsoidal Earth. Until the late 1600, the earth was thought to be perfectly
spherical in shape.
 The change came around 1670, when Sir Isac Newton proposed that the
earth has bulged at the equator due to centrifugal force generated by the
earth’s rotation while the poles flattened by about 1/300th of the
equatorial radius.
 This was confirmed by measurements made b/n 1735 to 1743 by
expeditions sent to Ecuador and Finland to measure distance.
 If we sliced the earth from pole to pole through its centre one would see
slightly elliptical cross section.
 Rotating this ellipse about the polar axis would outline the 3-dimensional
figure of the earth called an oblate ellipsoid.
Polar Axis
b
Equatorial Axis

a
 The shape of an oblateellipsoid is
determined by the relative length of the
equatorial (semi-major ) axis (a) and the
polar (simi-minor) axis (b).
 The amount of polar flattening (oblateness)
is given by the ratio f= (a-b)/a where a & b
are equatorial and polar radius respectively.
 Flattening is usually expressed as 1/f, so that
Newton’s predicted value would be 1/300.
 However based upon modern satellite based
orbital data it is around 1/298.
 Since about 1800 about 20 determinations of the earth’s radii and flattening
have been made from measurements made at widely different locations.
The following table shows 11 different official ellipsoids used as the basis or
mapping in various parts of the world.
Name Date Equatorial Polar flattening (f)

Radius a Radius b
(meters) (meters)

WGS 84 1984 6378,137 6356,752.3 1/298.257 Int’l Standard

GRS 80 1980 “ “ “
WGS 72 1972 6378.135 6356750.5 1/298.26
Australia 1965 6378160 6356774.7 1/298.25
n
Krasovsk 1940 6378245 6356863 1/298.3
y
Internatio 1924 6378388 6356911.9 1/297
nal
Clarke 1880 6378249.1 6356514.9 1/293.46
Clarke 1866 6378206.4 6356583.8 1/294.98
Bessel 1841 6377397.2 6356079.0 1/299.15

Airy 1830 6377563.4 6356256.9 1/299.32

Everest 1830 6377276.3 6356075.4 1/300.8
 The WGS (World Geodetic System) 72 and 84 ellipsoids, were determined from
satellite orbital data.
 They are considered more accurate than he earlier ground measurement
determinations.
 But they may not give the best fit for a particular part of the earth.

 Geoidal Earth. An even more faithful figure of the earth, called the
geoid (meaning earth like).
 It deviates so slightly from the ellipsoid in a particular manner.
 The geoid is the 3-dimensional shape that would be approximated by sea
level in the oceans and the surface of a series of hypothetical sea-level
canals criss-crossing the continents.
 It is supposed sea level equi-potential surface.
 The surface on which gravity is everywhere equal to its strength at mean
sea level.
 Had the earth’s surface been uniform in its geological composition and
devoid of uniform mountain ranges, ocean basins, and other vertical
irregularities, the geoid surface would match the ellipsoid exactly.
 However, due primarily variations in rock density and topographic
relief, the geoid surface deviates from the ellipsoid by up to 100 meters
in certain locations.
 Cartographic Use of the Sphere, Ellipsoid &
Geoid
 Cartographers use these three approximations to the
earth’s true shape in different ways.
 The authalic sphere is the reference surface for
small scale maps of countries, continents and
larger areas.
 This is so, because the difference b/n sphere and
ellipsoid is negligible when mapping large areas
in a general manner on page-size maps.
 As there is significant increase with the
complexity of map projection equations for the
ellipsoid it makes sense to use sphere for small-
scale maps.
 With detailed large-scale maps of small areas, such as
topographic maps and nautical charts, the differences
between locations on the spherical and ellipsoidal
approximations can be significant.
 Hence, one needs to take the earth’s oblateness into
account for making large-scale maps.
 Distances, directions, and areas measured on these
detailed maps would be incorrect at individual locations if
the authalic sphere were used.
 Cartographers use the ellipsoid as the reference surface
for large scale maps.
 Using ellipsoid also ties in well with modern data
collection methods for large scale mapping.
 Global positioning satellite receivers, for e.g., compute
latitude, longitude, and elevation using the WGS 84
ellipsoid as the reference surface.
 The geoid is the reference surface for
ground surveyed horizontal and vertical
positions.
 As the irregularities on the geoid would
make projection and other
mathematical computations extremely
complex, horizontal positions are
adjusted to the ellipsoid surface.
 On the other hand, elevations are
determined relative to the mean sea
level geoid.
 Coordinates System: Graticules
Geographical coordinates
 The geographical coordinate system is the primary locational reference
system for the earth.
 Latitude, north-south angular (arc) distance from the equator, and
longitude, east-west angular distance from the prime meridian are used to
establish the system.
 Its use can be traced back to the 2nd century B.C. to astronomer geographer
Hipparchus of Rhodes.
It hasalways been used in cartography and for all basic locational
reckoning, such as navigation and surveying.
 It was devised to establish statement of location for each earth features
 The north and south poles, points of intersection of the surface of earth
with the axis of rotation, are the only two unique points on which to base
the system.
 The equator, is then ,can be considered half way b/n the two poles;
Humankind has always needed to describe the location of features on the
earth’s surface.
 Pre-history (primitive) and immobile humans could use word descriptions to
convey the locations of hunting or fishing sites, attractions or dangers, or other
features that were of importance to them.
 Their descriptions could be simple word pictures of the location, such as
“the hill with snow on top”
 “the hole of gushing waters”
 “ at the confluence of a river”
 etc.
 However, as mobility and complexity of human activity increased it
increasingly became important to identify more & more features and to
differentiate b/n many features of the same type.
Today we must be able to describe the location of thousands of places on earth
in accurate and unequivocal terms.
 We must locate features or locale of interest
unambiguously for ourselves and we have to do the
same for others so that they can make their way.
 There are a number of different methods of specifying
location information.
 The commonly used ones include:
A) Geographic coordinate system which is based on latitude and longitude
B) Grid Systems
 Simple Reference Grids
 Plane Rectangular Grids
C) Universal Traverse Mercator System (UTMS)
 Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) System
D) US Military Grid Reference System
E) State Plane Coordinate System (peculiar to US)
Latitude and Longitude Positions
 What are latitudes and Longitudes?
The latitudes and longitudes are used to establish or define
location or positions of features or poits on the surface of the
earth.
a) Latitude is distance measured earth north or south of the
equator.
It is evident that distance is generally reckoned away from a
given reference.
If so what mark is used as a reference in this case and how
that reference is defined?
The two poles are the only two points on the surface of the
earth where the axis of the earth intercepts the surface of the
earth,
Geodetic latitude is a latitude on the ellipsoid.
 It is the angle formed by a line from the equator toward
the centre of the earth, and the second line perpendicular
to the ellipsoid surface at one’s location.
 Note that the perpendicular line
intersects the first line at
the centre of the ellipsoid
only at the geodetic latitudes
of 0 and 90 degrees.

E Ø
Authalic Latitude

Geodetic latitude (Ø) on the

ellipsoid.
 When one makes a small-scale maps based on spherical
earth one should use authalic latitude.
 It ranges pole to pole from 900N to 900S, or +900 to -900
 (When using digital data base and map projection
equations, northern hemisphere is designated ranging
from 00 to +900N and southern hemisphere ranging from
00 to -900S.)
 It is normally given in degrees, minutes and seconds but
computer calculations often require the decimal degree
system, e.g. 540 30’ expressed as 54.50
 The N-S distance on the sphere b/n each degree of
authalic latitude is identical, and only depends on the
circumference of the sphere.
 For the WGS 84 authalic sphere of circumference is
40,030.2 km and the distance b/n each degree of
latitude is 111.20 km.
The N-S distance b/n geodetic Latitud Km
e (Ø)
latitudes though shows slight 00 110.57
changes, it steadily increases pole 100 110.61
wards. 200 110.70
 The next table shows the list of 300 110.85
distances for the WGS 84 ellipsoid, 400 111.04
500 111.23
showing the steady increase from
600 111.41
110.57 at the equator to 111.69 km 700 111.56
at the two poles. 800 111.66
900 111.69
Length of a degree of arc
centred on the named
latitude
The N-S distance b/n the authalic latitudes is
111.20 km.
This matches with the geodetic distance only at
about 500 geodetic latitude.
 Such slight difference of 1 km in 110 km is of little
significance when making small-scale maps.
 But this cannot be neglected in making large scale
maps & charts.
 Geodetic latitude should always be used for large-
scale mapping, whereas geodetic latitudes of
ground features can be thought of as equivalent to
authalic latitudes for small-scale mapping.
 Longitude is the angle formed by a line going from the
intersection of the prime meridian and the equator to the
centre of the earth, and back to the intersection of the
equator and the local meridian passing through the
position.
 Sets of meridians drawn joining points that have same
longitude establish our east-west position from the prime
meridian.
 Unlike the equator, no meridian has a natural basis for
being the starting (reference) line to reckon east-west
position.
 The choice of the starting line (prime meridian) has always
been a matter of international concern and national pride.
 Eratosthenes placed one of the earliest prime meridian
through his home city Alexandria, later the Canary Islands,
the then westernmost point of the known world.
Until 1884 many countries published their maps and charts
with the prime meridian running through their capital.
 However since 1884 the Royal Observatory at Greenwich,
which is found near London was universally agreed upon at
the International Meridian Conference in Washington D.C.
The choice of Greenwich as the prime meridian established
00 00 point of origin of the geographical coordinate system
situated in the Gulf of Guinea.
 It also has become the starting point for international time
zones.
 The 1800 longitude which is found amidst of the Pacific
Ocean, opposite to the prime meridian, established the
International date Line.
 Days on earth must begin and end there.
Length of one degree of longitude.
 We know meridians converge at the two poles.
 As a result the east-west distance, the distance b/n two
consecutive meridians along a parallel becomes
progressively lesser pole wards.
 But the distance remains all along one parallel.
 On authalic sphere, such distance equals the ground
distance b/n one degree of longitude at the equator
multiplied by the cosine of the parallel’s of latitude.
- E.g. One degree longitude along the equator is
111.20 km on the ground whereas along 600 , the
length of one degree of longitude is 55.10 km because
cos 600 is 0.5.
 Like wise the distance of one degree longitude diminish
to zero km at the poles as shown in the next table.
Latitude Km
 The length of one degree of longitude
00
111.32
on the ellipsoid almost follows the above
100 109.64
200 104.65
formula, but not precisely.
30 0
96.49
The ellipsoidal equation for this purpose
400 85.39
is
500 71.70
600 55.80
D= a/(1-e2sin2 (Ø)) ½.cos(Ø). δλ
700 38.19
800 19.39
Where a and e are the semi-major axis and
900 0.00
eccentricity of the ellipsoid, Ø is the geodetic
latitude of the parallel, and λδ is the difference
in longitude (one degree converted to radians,
in this example)
 Properties of The Graticules
Graticule is the imaginary network of parallels and
meridians on the earth as projected on a flat map
surface.
 Graticules have geometrical properties some of which are
preserved when cartographers make map projection for part
or all of the earth.
 The main properties deal with distance, direction, area and
shape.
a) Distance on sphere and great circle
 The shortest distance b/n two points on a plane surface is a
strait line.
 Whereas, on curved 3-dimensional surface of the spherical
earth, it is impossible to follow a strait line.
The shortest straight line course over the curved surface
b/n any two points on a curved surface like sphere is the arc
on the surface directly above the straight line.
The spherical arc is formed by drawing a
circle passing through the two points in
question and the centre of the earth.
 Such circle that divides the earth into
hemispheres is called a great circle.
 The equator is the only great circle. Meridians
are one-half a great circle in length, but pairs of
meridians make a great circle.
 All parallels other than the equator are called
small circles.
Their circumference (C) is
C= 2Π*R*cos Ø, where Ø is the parallel of latitude
 1) Great circle distance b/n any two points on the sphere is
computed using the following formula:
cos D = (sin a sin b)+ (cos a cos b cos | δλ |), Where a & b are the
geographical latitudes of point A & B, and | δλ | is the absolute
value of the difference in longitude between A and B. Note that if
A and B are on opposite side of the equator, the product of the
sine will be negative.
Example: Great circle distance b/n Washington D.C. (38050’N,
77000’W) and Addis Ababa (90 N, 380 46’E).
Cos D= sin(38.833)*sin 9.0) + cos (38.833) * cos (9.0)*cos |-77.0 -
38.46|
Cos D=(0.627* 0.16) +(0.779*0.78)*(-0.43)
Cos D = (0.1003+0.6076)*(-0.43)
Cos D = 0.708-0.43= 0.28
D = cos -1 (0.28) =73.740
D km= 73.740 X 111.20 km/ 0 = 8199.9 km
 It is possible to process map projection so that all meridians made same
length and half as long as the circumference of the equator.
 Graticules can also be projected so that all parallels and the equator
become straight lines proportional in length to their small or great circle
circumference.
 However, doing so requires either distorting other properties of the
graticule.
2) Distance measurement on plane surface :

DG = √(E2 – E1)2 + (N2 -N1)2

b) Direction
 Direction on the earth are entirely arbitrary.
 Because a spherical surface has no edges, beginning or end.
 By convention north-south is defined as direction along any meridian and
east-west is defined as direction along any parallel.
 The arrangement of the graticule, the two directions are everywhere
perpendicular except at the poles.
 Such direction which are determined by the orientation of the graticule
are called geographic or true directions.
The arrangement of the graticule, the two directions are
everywhere perpendicular except at the poles.
 Such direction which are determined by the orientation
of the graticule are called geographic or true directions as
distinguished from two other kinds of direction, magnetic
and grid.
 The needle of a magnetic compass aligns itself with the
earth’s field of magnetic force.
 The magnetic field poles do not coincide with the poles of
the earth’s rotation, 900 N&S.
 The magnetic poles change position over time.
 The north magnetic pole currently locate at 780 N, 1030
W, about 1300 km south of the geographical pole.

Consequently, there is usually a difference is called
compass variation on nautical charts and magnetic
declination on topographic maps.
 Cartographers show angular differences b/n the true and
magnetic and ad along with grid north, by drawing a
declination diagram.
 Direction of a line on earth is called many things: bearing,
course, heading, flightline, or azimuth.
 Their meanings are the same except the context in which
they are used.
 Two direction specifications of special importance in
cartography are azimuth and constant azimuth.
* GN MN
0055’

171/2
True azimuth. Directions established by graticule are likely to change
constantly as we move along the arc of a great circle.
Only along meridians or the equator does direction remain constant.
 One can designate true azimuth by measuring the clockwise angle that the arc
of the great circle makes with the meridian at the starting point.
 1) Direction on maps of geographic coordinates ca be computed uing the
following formula:
cot Z = [(cos a tan b csc| δλ |)- (sin a cot | δλ |)]
Where a & b are the latitudes of points A & B, and | δλ | is the absolute
value of the difference in the longitude b/n A & B.
Example of true azimuth b/n Washington D.C. (A=38 050’N, 770 00’ W) and
Moscow(B= 550 45’N’N, 370.37’E)
cot Z = [(cos (38.833) tan (55.75) csc |(-77.0-
| 37.62|)- (sin 38.833.00 cot
|(-77.0- 37.62) |]
= [(0.779 * 1.469 * 1.100)-(0.627*-0.458)]
= 1.259 + 0.287 = 1.546
tan Z = 1.0/1.546
Z = tan -1 (0.647)
= 32.90
2) Azimuth on Grided maps can be computed using the following formula:-
Tan AZG = E2-E1/N2-N1
Bear in mind if the azimuth is in the 1st quadrant the result is taken as it is; if it is in the 4th
quadrant the result equals 1800- tan AGz, if it is in the 3rd quadrant the result would be
1800 + tan AGz, and in the 2nd quadrant the result would be 3600 – tan AZG.
As the great circles are the shortest course between two points, A & B,
movements along such lines is economical.
Hence cartographers construct special map projection which maintain
these directional relations.
Constant azimuth also called rhumb line or loxodrome is a line that
intersects meridian at constant (san=me) angle.
 It is a line of constant bearing.
 All meridians have constant azimuth of o0 (north) or 1800 (south)
depending on the direction of travel.
 All parallels and the equator have also a constant bearing of 900 (east)
or 2700 (west).
 To maintain constant bearing while moving crossing all other
meridians, one should trace out a spiral known as loxodromic curve.
A great circle is the most economical route to follow when travelling
on the earth.
A great circle is the most economical route to
follow when travelling on the earth.
 However it is not practical for pilots to change
course continuously.
 In order for ships and aircrafts to follow the
great circle route b/n two points as closely as
possible.
 Hence movement is directed a long a series of
constant azimuths that approximate the great
circle route.
 Cartographers prepare maps and charts
employing Mercator projection, on which all
plotted straight lines will be constant azimuth.
 c. Area
The surface area of quadrilaterals, area bounded by two
consecutive parallels and meridians changes pole wards.
 The systematic decrease in surface area (S) may be
computed the following equation:
Ssq.km = R2 . (sin a. Sin b). δλ
where a & b are the latitudes of upper and lower parallels and δλ
is the difference in longitude b/n the bounding meridians in
radians.
 The following table shows the systematic decrease of
areas pole wards.
The following table shows the systematic decrease of areas
pole wards.
Surface area of 100 x 100
Latitude (lower) Area (km2 )
00 1224480
100 1188528
200 1117359
300 1011480
400 875136
500 711510
600 525312
700 322195
800 108584
* 1) The Ethiopian airlines plane flies non-stop from Addis Ababa to Washington D.C.
The plane took off from Bole Air Port on Monday morning at 6 am and the flight took
say 14 hours.
a) What will be the day & local time in Washington DC when the plane arrives.
b) What will be the local time in Addis A. when the plane lands in Washington DC?
* 2) The Japanese airlines plane flew from Tokyo to Los Angles. The flight is
non-stop and the plane flies eastwards. The plane took of from Tokyo Air Port
on Sunday mid-day (12 am) local time and the flight took 10 hours.
*a) What will be the day & local time when the plane landed at Los Angles air port?
*b) What will be the local time in Tokyo when the plane lands in Los Angles?
* 3) Calculate the distance between Addis Ababa and Cairo?
* 4) What (how much) is direction of Addis A. due (from) Cairo? (Give in degrees
and decimals of minutes).
* 5) Given grid coordinates of two towns, Werabe (410000mE, 868000mN) and
Kebul (393000 mE, 870000 mN), both are found in Selti Zone, SNNPR.
*a) What is strait line distance between the two towns in kilometer?
*b) What is the direction of Kebul due (from) Werabe?
84
2. World Geographic Reference System
 Specifying a location on the earth’s surface in terms of degrees,
minutes and seconds of north and south latitude, and of east and west
longitude appears somehow cumbersome.
 The World GEOREF allows more convenient and rapid reporting and
plotting of locations.
 The GEOREF is primarily used in military operations.
 Latitude and longitude designations are replaced by a simple set of
letters and numbers.
 The world is 1st divided into 15-degree-wide north-south and east-west
bands, utilizing the lines of longitude and latitude. (see the figure)
 The 24 longitudinal zones are lettered in an east-ward direction,
beginning at the 180th meridian.
 The 1st zone to the east of 1800 is identified by the letter A.
 This goes up to Z avoiding letter I & O.
 The twelve latitudinal bands begin with A for the 1st band north of the
South Pole and end with M at the N.P. omitting I.
 Establishing the 15 degree zones and bands results in the formation of
288 quadrangles, each uniquely identified by a pair of letters.
 The first letter of the pair identifies the vertical zone followed by
horizontal band.
 This follows the general rule of grid systems: Read right and then up”.
 See the British Isles, for example, fall largely within square MK,
using the system.
 When more accurate location descriptions are required, additional
subdivisions are used.
 Each 15-degree quadrangles subdivided into 225 1 degree
quadrangles (see Figure).
 Each of these quadrangles is identified by adding a third and fourth letter
to the original pair of letters.
 The north-south zone identified by the 3rd letter, using A through Q
(omitting I & O).
 The letters begin at the western edge of the 15-degree quadrangle.
 The east-west bands are identified by the 4th letter using same letters and
beginning at the southern edge of the 15-degree quadrangle.
 With the four identifying letters one can fully identify a 1-degree
quadrangle in the world.
 More closer identification of locations is provided by subdividing each 1 0
quadrangle into 3600 one-minute quadrangles.
 The one minute quadrangles are identified by a four digit number.
 The N-S zones are identified by the 1st two digits.
 These digits designate the zones 00 through 59, numbered west to east.
 The east-west bands are similarly numbered, from south to north.
 These numbers make up the second two digits (see Figure).

 The final level of accuracy is provided by further subdividing each 1

minute quadrangle into decimal parts.
 The numbering system reads from left to right and then from bottom to
top.
 Hence, the GEOREF coordinate identifies any 0.1 minute quadrangle in
the world using only four letters and six numbers, and any 0.01 minute
quadrangle using 4 letters and eight numbers.
Rectangular Grid System consists of
 Cartesian Coordinates
 Reference Grids
 Plane Rectangular Grids
Cartesian Coordinates
This is a mathematical construct based on Euclidian Geometry and
defined by origin – i.e. an initial point- and a unit distance.
In a plane 2 axes are established running through the origin and spaced so
that they are perpendicular to each other.
 The axes are called X-axis (abscissa) and Y-axis (ordinate).
3

II 2
I
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4

-1
III -2 IV

-3
To simplify calculations and avoid negative numbers
and repetition of numbers east and west or north and
south of the axes we use only Quadrant I.
 To accomplish this an arbitrary large value, called a
false easting, is given to the Y-axis origin.
A second arbitrary large value, called a false
northing, is given to the X-axis origin.
This in effect moves the new origin (grid reference,
0,0) off the map to the southwest, resulting in all
positive values for X and Y within the map area.
Rectangular Reference Grids
 Maps may have special reference grids superimposed on them in addition
to the lines of latitude and longitude.
These grids are simply drawn after it has been constructed.

 They are used for locational purpose alone.
 They are designed so that the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken
into account when they are used for they cover small area.
 Hence curvature becomes negligible.
Reference grids of this type often use letters to designate the horizontal bands
and numbers to designate the vertical ones.
 Both series begin at the lower left corner of the map.
 The numbering and lettering patterns are not standardized.
 The major shortcoming of such grids is that they are specific to each map
 Hence they do not tie into any overall locational system.``
H
G
F
E
D
Square 4D
C
B
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 One or more plane rectangular grid systems may be superimposed on
a map after it has been constructed on a latitude and longitude
graticule.
The purpose of such grids is to provide an easily used locational
system that does not require the introduction of correction for the
curvature of the earth.
Reason for why coordinate system came to appear on maps.
With the increasing range of artillery in WWI, it became more and
more difficult for an army to arrive at accurate azimuth (bearing or
direction) and range (distance) calculations to a target.
 Until WWI, battles were fought hand to hand, or enemies were within
sight of one another.
However with an increase with range of ammunition visual sighting of
targets was no longer necessary, but trajectories had to be calculated in
real time in the field.
Thus as the range of ammunition increased armies had to calculate
where to shoot without being able to see the target.
 Calculations involving latitude & longitude are cumbersome for quick
field calculation..
 To simplify the problem, the Frenches were the first to construct and
use a series of local plane, rectangular coordinate grids on their maps.
 This proved so useful that other nations quickly followed suit.
 Then cartographers started using them in mapping.
Today the use of rectangular grid systems is almost universal.
To establish a plane rectangular coordinate system, the
procedure is as follows:
 1st a map is made by transforming the spherical surface to a
plane.
 Then, a rectangular plane coordinate grid is placed over the
map.
 The coordinate grid is most often tied to the map by placing
the origin of the coordinate grid somewhere near the center of
interest on the map.
The perpendicular axes of the coordinate grid are usually
made to coincide with straight line meridians and/or parallels,
if they exist.
 To locate a position, you need to specify the X and Y
coordinates of that point.
 One can do so to whatever degree of precision one desires in
decimal divisions of whatever earth distance units are used for the coordinate
system.
It is a standard practice for large scale maps to be on conformal
projections.
On such projections coordinate reference grids maintain the accuracy
you need to calculate directions and distances.
Under such system, every point on the earth surface has an unique pair
of coordinates.
The pair of coordinates of a point are called a grid reference.
 There is a conventional way to read grid reference in rectangular map
coordinates.
You always give X value first which is called easting followed by Y
value called northing.
A rule of thumb is that one always reads “right, up”
 The following figure shows that point P can be given an easting
value of 14.5 and a northing value of 20.4 by decimal subdivision
of the square.

22

21

*P
20

19

18
12 13 14 15 16

A proportion of a rectangular grid . If the square are 1 km on a side ,

then point P may be located to within a 10 m2 with the grid reference
14562041
When used on a map , a grid reference is given as an even set of
numbers run together.
The first half of the group is the easting coordinate value while the
second half is the northing.
Decimals are not shown, but are deduced from the numbering of the
lines.
Thus the grid reference noted in the above figure for point P would be
145201.
With lesser precision it would be 1420 whereas with greater precision
it would be 14562041.
The accuracy with which you can use a plane coordinate system depends on
the way the scale factor (SFs) are arranged on the map.
This, of course , depends upon the map projection.
In the early part of this country, a variety of projections were used for plane
coordinate system.
This days however, most plane coordinate systems are based on only 3 map
projections which all are conformal:
Traverse Mercator,
The Polar Stereographic and
Lambert’s Conformal Conic .
 For regions positioned astride or close to the equator one can safely use Mercator
projection.
Plane coordinates are not usually used on small-scale maps.
 The distortions resulting from transforming the spherical surface to the plane
are so great on small-scale maps that detailed calculations and positioning are
difficult.
Thus plane coordinates are used only on large scale maps.
For regions positioned astride or close to the equator one
can safely use Mercator projection.
Plane coordinates are not usually used on small-scale
maps.
 The distortions resulting from transforming the
spherical surface to the plane are so great on small-scale
maps that detailed calculations and positioning are
difficult.
Thus plane coordinates are used only on large scale
maps.
Most large scale topographic maps show one or more
systems of plane coordinates.
In the 1:50000 topographic maps of Ethiopia two
reference or coordinate grid systems indicated.
 Plane Rectangular Grids: Universal Traverse Mercator
(UTM) System
 The UTM grid system has been widely
adopted for topographic mapping, satellite
imagery, natural resources data bases, and
other applications that require precise
positioning.
 It is a metric system i.e. the meter is the basic
unit of measurement.
 In the UTM grid system, the area of the earth
b/n 840 and 800S latitude is divided into N-S
columns of 60 of longitude wide.
 These columns are called UTM Zones/Gores.
 They are numbered from 1 to 60 eastward,
beginning at the 180th meridian.
 Each column is divided into quadrilaterals of
80 latitude.
 The rows of quadrilateral are assigned letters
C to X consecutively (I & O omitted)
beginning at 800 latitude
 Each quadrilateral is assigned a number-letter
combination.
 For example, 18S denotes a quadrilateral 6 0 in
longitude, b/n 780 W and 720 W, and 80 in latitude, b/n
320 and 400N.
 Each 60 by 80 quadrilateral is divided into 100,000-
meter zones.
 These zones are designated by a system of letter
combinations arranged so that the same two-letter
combination is not repeated within 18 0.
 Within each 100,000-meter square, you can specify an
easting of up to five digits and a northing of up to five
digits.
 In a civilian UTM system
 1st the false origin is established, 500,000 meters
west of the central meridian of each UTM zone.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, this origin is on the
equator for northing while in the Southern
Hemisphere it is 10,000,000 meters south of the
equator at about 800 S latitude.
 A square grid, with the lines extended north and
east from the
 Origin, provides a basic locational framework.
 With such framework, any point on the earth’s
surface, within each zone, has a unique
coordinate.
• Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM) zone
• Zone 37
840 N 00

Central
Meridian Central
Meridian
» 10,000,000 m

00

360 420 E 800S

39
0
1 Adindan - GeoRepository
Adindan is a geodetic datum first
defined in 1958 and is suitable for use
in Eritrea ; Ethiopia; South Sudan;
Sudan.
Adindan references the Clarke 1880
(RGS) ...
2 Adindan
/ UTM zone 37N - EPSG:20137 - EPS
G.io

EPSG:20137 Projected coordinate

system for Eritrea. Ethiopia - between
36°E and 42°E. Sudan - east of 36°E.
Large and medium scale topographic
mapping ...
 Summary of properties of Graticules
 One can visually evaluate many projections effectively
just by ‘looking’- by comparing the graticule on the
reference globe with the way they appear on the projected
map.
 The following properties would be helpful in making
such evaluation.
 It outlines important visual characteristics of the earth’s
coordinate system as portrayed on a globe.
1. Parallels are parallel.
2. Parallels when shown at constant interval are spaced
uniformly on meridians.
3. Meridians and great circles on a globe appear as stright lines
when viewed orthogonally (looking straight down) which is
the way we look at a flat map.
4. Meridians converge at the two poles and diverge toward the
equator.
5. Meridians when shown at a constant interval are equally
spaced on the parallels, but their spacing decreases from the
equator to the poles.
6. When both are shown with the same intervals, meridians and
parallels are equally spaced at or near the equator.
7. When both are shown with the same intervals, meridians at
600 latitude are half as far apart as parallels.
8. Parallels and meridians always intersect at right angles.
9. The surface area bounded by any two parallels and two
meridians is the same anywhere between the same parallels,
if the interval maintained the same.
 Scale Factor, Transformations, Distortions
Resulting from Map Transformations
 Globe maps are best models of the earth.
 When we make globe all what we change is the size.
 Relative distances, angles, and areas, as well as azimuths,
ruhumbs, and great circles, are all retained without any
additional distortion.
 Globes, on the other hand, have many practical
disadvantages.
 They are expensive to make, difficult to produce,
cumbersome to handle, awkward to store, and difficult to
measure and draw on.
 All these drawbacks are eliminated when a map is
prepared on a flat surface.
 However, constructing a map on a flat surface does
require an important operation besides altering scale.
However, constructing a map on a flat surface does require
an important operation besides altering scale.
 The spherical surface must be transformed to a plane
surface.
 Combination of scale alteration and a system of
transformation results in a map projection.
Scale Factors.
 Let us assume that map projection is a two-stage process.
 First, the earth has been mapped on a globe reduced to the
size (scale) chosen for flat map.
 Such a hypothetical globe from which the 1 st projection is
processed is the reference globe.
 Second, the globe’s surface is mathematically transformed,
poit by point, onto a flat surface.
 The three-dimensional information of the globe is now
displayed on a two-dimensional flat surface.
 The representative globe will have a given scale (RF) called the
principal scale.
 This is determined by dividing radius of the reference globe by
the radius of the earth (r/R).
 On the reference globe the actual scale anwhere will be the
same as the principal scale.
Scale factor (SF) is the actual scale divided by the principal
scale. SF = AS/PS = DPS/ DAS
 By definition the scale factor will be 1.0 everywhere on the
globe.
 When all or part of the globe surface is transformed to a flat
map, the actual scale at various places on the map will be larger
or smaller than the principal scale.
 This happens simply because the two surfaces are not
applicable (incompatible).
 One cannot transform the other without stretching, shrinking,
or tearing.
Hence the SF will always vary from place to place on a flat map.
 Imagine what happens to a pattern of equally distant points on
the reference globe.
 Then picture corresponding points established on a flat map.
 The mathematical scheme used to specify positions of the
points on the flat map defines the method of transformations.
 As the two surfaces are not applicable, distance relationships
among the points on the flat map must be modified.
 Consequently, it is impossible to devise a transformation the
reference globe surface to a plane so that any figure drawn on
one will appear exactly the same on the other.
Nevertheless, by suitably varying the SF, we can (1) retain some
angular relationships, or (2) retain relative sizes of figures.
 But what if one wants some other attribute, such as straight-
line azimuths from one point to all others?
 In that case, most angular relationships will usually be
changed, and areas of regions on the two surfaces will not have a
constant ratio to each other.

 To be clear with how the two facts apply to map projections,
keep in mind two important details:
a. SF values may occur at a point
B. SF values may be different in different directions
at a point.
 Let us have a look at each of these aspects:
 Picture an arc of 900, projected orthohraphically (at right
angles) to a straight line tangent at a.
 Imagine that a, b, c... j are the positions on the arc at 100
interval.
 The respective positions after transformation on
tangential line at a are indicated by points a, b’, c’, d’ ... f’.

 j‘
j I’ h’
i hg g’
 Line aj’ represents arc aj. f
e
f’
e’
d d’
c C’
Orthographic b b’
a
Projection of
an Arc to a
Tangent
Straight Line

As indicated by the figure the intervals on the straight line,

starting at the point of tangency, a, becomes progressively
smaller as j’ is approached.
 If SF = 1.0 along the arc, then on the transformation of the arc,
the SF gradually reduced to from 1.0 at a to 0 at j’.
 The rate of change is graphically indicated by decreasing the
spaces between the points.
 Since it is a continuous change, every point on aj’ must have a
different SF.
 Now, let us explore the second proposition- that scale at a
point may be different in different directions.
 To visualize this fact, let us picture a rectangle
abcd.
 Imagine that it is projected to ab’c’d so that side
ad coincides in abcd and its projection ab’c’d. (see
the figure (A) in the next slide).
 A B
b

c
b
c

b’ b’ c’
a

d c’ a d
Projection of rectangle abcd to rectangle ab’c’d with side ad held
constant. In drawing (A) the perspective view shows the geometric
relation of the two rectangles. Drawing ( B) shows the relation of the
two rectangles when they are each viewed orthogonally.

Then, take a look at figure B .

 It is an orthogonal view of rectangle abcd and its projection
superimposed with line ad of each coincident.
If the SF is 1.00 and the length ad is the same in each rectangle,
there has been no change in scale in that direction.
 However the length ab’ is half the length of ab, and it is evident
from the method of transformation that the change has been
made in a uniform fashion.
 Thus, the SF along ab’ must be 0.5.
 Moreover, by projection, line ac has become line ac’.
 The ratio of lengths ac’ to ac makes the SF along ac’.
 Hence the ratio is neither the 1.0 ratio along ad nor the 5.0
ratio along ab’; it is somewhere in between.
 Any other diagonal from point a to a position on side bc would
have its corresponding place of intersection on b’c’.
 The ratio of lengths of similar diagonals on the two rectangles
would be different for each such line.
 Hence the scale at a point a in rectangle ab’c’d is different in
every direction.
 The two propositions noted so far that:
SF values may occur at a point and that SF values may
be different in different directions at a point are very
important.
 They provide the basis for analysing how a projection has
transformed distances, directions, angles, and areas on the
sphere.
 On the reference globe, there is at each point an infinite
number of paired orthogonal directions, such as N-S with E-W.
NE-SW with NW-SE, and so on.
 When transformation to the plane is made, the paired
orthogonal directions on the globe will be represented by paired
directions on the map projection.
 However, these pairs will not necessarily remain orthogonal.

 Distortions Resulting from Map transformations
 whenever the spherical surface is transformed to a plane, one
thing is certain.
 All of the geometrical relationships on the sphere, such as
parallel parallels, converging meridians, and perpendicular
intersection of parallels and meridians, can not be entirely
duplicated.
 The major alterations have to do with angles, areas, distances,
and directions.
i.Transformation of Angles
 At each point on the globe’s surface except at the two poles the
cardinal directions are always 900 apart.
It is possible to retain this property of angular relations on a map
projection.
 When correct angles are retained, the projection is referred to as
conformal or orthomorphic.
 Both terms imply “correct form or shape”.
 The terms apply to the directions or angles that occur at points in
infinitesimally small areas. Conmformollity does not apply to
regions of any significant size.
 It is possible however, that arrange the stretching and
compression so that at each point on a projection the SF is constant
in every direction at every point, (i.e. Q=b and the projection is
conformal).
 When this condition occurs, all directions around a point will be
represented correctly, and the parallels and meridians will
intersect at 900.
 It must be emphasized that this desirable quality is limited to
direction at points and does not necessarily apply to direction b/n
distant points o the projection.
It should be noted b/c a projection show perpendicular parallels
and meridians, it doesnot necessarily have the property of
conformality.
 ii. Transformation of Areas
 It is also possible on a map projection to retain representation to retain
of areas so that all regions will be shown in correct relative size.
 Such a projection is referred to as equal area or equivalent
projection.
 This property is obtained by arranging the SF in the principal
directions so that the product of the SF’s equal 1.0 (i.e. Ab = 1.0) at
every point.
 But SF varies in every other direction about a point; hence the
projection cannot be conformal.
 It is evident that scale requirements for conformality (a=b=1.0) and
equivalence (ab=1.0) for all points are contradictory.
 Theoretically this condition is met at standard points or at every
point on a standard line.
 Consequently no map can be both conformal and equvalent at the
same time.
 Thus all conformal transformations represent similar earth regions
with unequal sizes, and all equal area transformations will deform
most earth angles.
iii. Transformation of Distances
Reproducing correct distances is a matter of maintaining consistency
of scale.
For true distance b/n two points to be truly represented on a map
projection, the scale must be uniform along the entire extent of the line
joining the two points.
The scale must also be the same as the principal scale on the reference
globe.
There are two options when representing distance on a map:
 A scale of 1.0 may be maintained along one or more parallel lines, but only
alng the lines. Such lines are called standard lines or standard parallels.
 A scale factor of 1.0 may be maintained in all directions from one one or
two points, but only from those points.
 The resulting map projection is called equidistant projection and the
points are also called standard points.
iv. Transformation of Directions
As it is impossible to represent all earth distances with a consistent
map scale, so does impossible to represent all earth directions correctly
with straight lines.
It is true that we can arrange the SF distribution so as to show rhumbs
or arcs of great circles as straight lines.
But no projection can show directions so that all great circles are
straight lines with the same angular relations to the map graticule that
they have with the globe graticule.
 We can think of correct direction on a map projection as being a great
circle shown as a straight line.
 At starting point on both reference globe and map projection on both
reference globe and map projection, this line will set out from the
meridian at the same azimuth (angle).
 Given these conditions several representations are possible:
a) Great circle arcs b/n all points may be shown by straight lines for a very limited area.
However, angular intersections of great circles with meridians (azimuths) will not be
shown correctly.
b) Great circle arcs with correct azimuths may be shown as straight lines for all
directions from one or, at the most, two points. Such projections are called Azimuthal.
 The shape of the Earth is represented
as a sphere.
 Itis also modeled more accurately as
an oblate spheroid or an ellipsoid.
 A globe is a scaled down model of the
Earth. Although they can represent
size, shape, distance and directions of
the Earth features with reasonable
accuracy, globes are not practical or
suitable for many applications.
 They are hard to transport and store;
 Globes are not suitable for use at large
scales, such as finding directions in a
city or following a hiking route, where
a more detailed image is essential.
 They are expensive to produce,
especially in varying sizes (scales).
 On a curved surface, measuring terrain
properties is difficult, and it is not
possible to see large portions of the
Earth at once.
 Maps do not suffer from the above
shortcomings and are more practical
than globes in most applications.
 Historically cartographers have tried
to address the challenge of
representing the curved surface of the
Earth on a map plane, and to this end
have devised map projections.
 A map projection is the
transformation of Earth’s curved
surface (or a portion of) onto a two-
dimensional flat surface by means of
mathematical equations.
 During such transformation, the
angular geographic coordinates
(latitude, longitude) referencing
positions on the surface of the Earth
are converted to Cartesian coordinates
(x, y) representing position of points
125 on a flat map.
- Basically there are three I. Perspective Projections:
this are strictly geometrical
major group (classes) of projections.
map projection:
They are derived from a
I. Perspective ‘generating’ (reference) globe.
Projections Differences within a group is
II. Non Perspective obtained by varying the
position of the point of origin
Projections of the projection (center of the
III. Conventional globe or opposite surface,
Projections remote distance or infinity
distance) and by varying the
nature of the surface (cylinder,
cone, planar) on which the
projection is to be made, etc.

126
* 2, Non Perspective Projection: 3) Conventional Projections.
* These embrace projections which This embraces those projections which
are in effect derived from their are purely conventional in form, and in
perspective counterparts by suitable which the idea of ‘projection’, as generally
modifications. understood, is not apparent.
* Since they are not ‘projected’ in the The parallels and meridians are drawn
usual sense of the term, and are
consequently known as non-
so as to conform to some arbitrarly
perspective projections. chosen principle.
* The method and degree of Included in this group are some very
modification can be adjusted to suit valuable projections, especially those
any particular requiremnt. designed to show the whole world on one
* Because they can be so rapidly map.
adapted to individual circumstances, Example: Molwede Projection,
they assume great importance. Sinusoidal projection, etc.

127
* One way of classifying map projections * Keep in mind that while some
is by the type of the developable projections use a geometric
surface onto which the reference sphere process, in reality most
is projected. projections use mathematical
*A developable surface is a geometric equations to transform the
shape that can be laid out into a flat coordinates from a globe to a flat
surface without stretching or tearing. surface.
* The three types of developable surfaces * The resulting map plane in most
are cylinder, cone and plane, and their instances can be rolled around
corresponding projections are the globe in the form of cylinder,
called cylindrical, conical and planar. cone or placed to the side of the
* Projections can be further categorized globe in the case of the plane.
based on their point(s) of contact
(tangent or secant) with the reference
* The developable surface
serves as a good illustrative
surface of the Earth and their
analogy of the process of
orientation (aspect).
128 flattening out a spherical
object onto a plane.
 Perspective or Geometrical Projection can be varied by
a) changing the shape of surface of projection
b) position of source of projection and
c) aspect of projection.
Source /Center of Projection
Surface of Projection
i)Cylindrical Projection i)Gnomonic Projection
ii)Conical projection ii)Stereographic Projection
iii)Plannar (Azimuthal) proj iii)Globular Projection
iv) Orthographic Projection
Aspect of Projection
i)Normal Projection
ii) Oblique Projection
iii)Traverse projection
iv) Secant Projection
*Perhaps the easiest map projection to visualize is
the cylindrical projection.
*The map is produced by projecting the surface of the
globe onto the inner surface of a cylinder.
*The cylinder is then cut lengthwise and unrolled to
produce the developed surface or the map.
*Where the cylinder touches the globe is the tangent line
and is the region of least distortion.
*The further and further from the tangent line, the
greater the distortion. With this type of projection,
areas on the globe near the cylinder axis cannot, in fact,
be projected onto the map surface.
*Thus, only a certain portion of the globe's surface can
131

be represented by these types of projections.

There are three types of cylindrical map projections:
normal,
transverse and
oblique.
* For each type, the geometric relation between the
cylinder axis and the planet axis determines the
position of the tangent line on the globe.

132
Normal cylindrical projections are produced when
the axis of the cylinder and that of the planet are
parallel. In this orientation, the tangent line
corresponds to the Equator. The meridian along which
the cylinder is cut determines which continents occupy
the center part of the map. For example, a cylinder cut
along the Prime Meridian will produce a map in which
the Pacific Ocean occupies the central portion of the
map.

133
By orienting the cylinder axis
perpendicular to the planet axis,
a transverse cylindrical
projection is produced.
In this projection, the tangent line is
oriented N-S and passes through the
poles thereby paralleling longitude
lines.
The longitude for the tangent line is
determined by what area of the
globe will be shown in the center of
the final map

134
When the cylinder and planet axes
are at an angle to each other, the
projection is an oblique
cylindrical projection.

 In this type of projection, the

tangent line is oblique to both
longitude and latitude lines

135
 The cylinder may be either
tangent or secant to the reference
surface of the Earth.
 In the tangent case, the cylinder’s
circumference touches the
reference globe’s surface along
a great circle (any circle having
the same diameter as the sphere
and thus dividing it into two equal
halves).
 The diameter of the cylinder is
equal to the diameter of the globe.
The tangent line is the equator for
the equatorial or normal aspect;
while in the transverse aspect, the
cylinder is tangent along a chosen
meridian (i.e. central meridian).  The tangent and secant lines are important
since scale is constant along these lines
 In the secant case, the cylinder
intersects the globe; that is the (equals that of the globe), and therefore there
diameter of the cylinder is smaller is no distortion (scale factor = 1).
than the globe’s.  Such lines of true scale are called standard
 At the place where the cylinder lines. These are lines of equidistance.
cuts through the globe two secant Distortion increases by moving away from
lines are formed.
standard
136 lines.
 Azimuthal projections are formed
when the globe is projected onto a
plane.
 The plane is tangent to the globe at a
single point.
 Distortion is least near the point of
tangency and increases outward from
there.
 Because of the orientation of the map
plane, azimuthal projections depict
only the hemisphere of the globe
touching the map plane.
 When the map plane is tangent to the
pole, a normal azimuthal projection.
 This type of projection will image
either the Northern or Southern 137

hemispheres but not both

Oblique azimuthal
projections are those in
which the map plane is
tangent at any point other
than the poles.
 This type of projection
produces very complex
patterns of longitude and
latitudes.

138
 The plane in planar projections
may be tangent to the globe at a
single point or may be secant.
 In the secant case the plane
intersects the globe along a
small circle forming a standard
parallel which has true scale.
 The normal polar aspect yields
parallels as concentric circles,
and meridians projecting as
straight lines from the center of
the map.
 The distortion is minimal
around the point of tangency in
Examples of azimuthal projections include:
the tangent case, and close to oAzimuthal quidistant,
the standard parallel in the o Lambert Azimuthal Equal-area,
secant case. o Gnomonic, Stereographic, and
139
o Orthographic projections.
 Some classic azimuthal
projections are perspective
projections and can be
produced geometrically.
 They can be visualized as
projection of points on the
sphere to the plane by shining
rays of light from a light
source (or point of
perspective).
 Three projections, namely
gnomonic, stereographic and
orthographic can be defined
based on the location of the
perspective point or the light
source.
 The point of perspective or
the light source is located at Gnomonic Projection (also known as Central
the center of the globe in or Gnomic Projection)
gnomonic projections. Great
circles are the shortest
distance between two points
on the surface of the sphere
(known as great circle route).
 Gnomonic projections map all
great circles as straight lines,
and such property makes these
projections suitable for use in
navigation charts.
 Distance and shape distortion
increase sharply by moving
away from the center of the 140
projection.
o In stereographic
projections, the
perspective point is
located on the surface of
globe directly opposite
from the point of tangency
of the plane.
o Points close to center
point show great
distortion on the map.
o Stereographic projection
is a conformal projection,
that is over small areas
angles and therefore
shapes are preserved. It is
often used for mapping
Polar Regions (with the
source located at the 141

opposite pole).
 In orthographic
projections, the point
of perspective is at
infinite distance on
the opposite direction
from the point of
tangency.
 The light rays travel
as parallel lines.
 The resulting map
from this projection
looks like a globe
(similar to seeing
Earth from deep
space).
 There is great
distortion towards the 142

borders of the map.

* The conic map projection can be visualized by imagining placing a paper cone
on a globe and projecting points on the globe onto the inner side of the cone.
* A map is produced by cutting the cone from the apex to the base and
unrolling it.
* Where the cone touches the globe is the tangent line and is the region of least
distortion.
* The further and further from the tangent line, the greater the distortion.
* With this type of projection, only one hemisphere of the globe can be
represented on the final map.
* Thus, conic projections produce maps that show on half of the globe's
surface.
* There are three types of conic map projections.
* For each type, the geometric relation between the cone axis and the planet
axis and the angle of the cone determines the position of the tangent line on
the globe.
* (More complex conic projection maps 143 are created by having the cone of
projection actually pierce the globe.)
 Normal conic projections.
 These are the ones in which the
planet axis and that of the cone
are coincident.
 The cone is tangent along a
selected latitude determined by
the angle of the cone.
 On these types of maps, longitudes
will consist of a series of lines
radiating from the pole.
 In contrast, latitudes will form
arcs of circles centered on the
pole.
144
ii. Traverse Conic Projections.
 These are produced when the
cone of the axis is oriented at
right angles to the planet axis.
 This puts the apex of the cone
over the equation.
The tangent line, as with the
oblique conic projection, cuts
across both latitudes and
longitudes.
The pattern produced by the
longitudes and latitudes are very
complex. 145
ii. Oblique Conic Projections.
 By orienting the axis of the cone
at an angle to the planet axis,
an oblique conic projection is
produced.
On these maps, the tangent line
cuts across both latitude and
longitude lines and they have no
simple geometric relationship.

146
General characteristics of Equirectangular projection

•Plate Carree-square grid

•One of the oldest and simplest projections
• Both meridians and parallels are equally spaced (equidistant)
•Lines of latitude and longitude are parallel intersecting at 90 degrees
•Meridians are equidistant
•Forms a rectangular map
•Scale along the equator or standard parallels (lines of tangency) is true
•Can have the properties of equidistance, Conformality or equal area
•The poles are represented as lines
The cone may be either tangent to the
reference surface along a small circle
(any circle on the globe with a
diameter less than the sphere’s
diameter) or it may cut through the
globe and be secant (intersect) at two
small circles.
For the polar or normal aspect, the
cone is tangent along a parallel of
Scale is true (scale factor = 1) and
latitude or is secant at two parallels.
there is no distortion along standard
These parallels are called standard
parallels. Distortion increases by
parallels. This aspect produces a map
moving away from standard parallels.
with meridians radiating out as
Features appear smaller between
straight lines from the cone’s apex,
secant parallels and appear larger
and parallels drawn as concentric arcs
outside these parallels. Secant
perpendicular to meridians.
projections lead to less overall map
. distortion
148
Plate Carree Equirectangular Projection
It is a simple non-perspective cylindrical projection.
Properties:-
1)The equator is projected as a straight line true to scale 2лr x Cosҩ;
and accurately divided for the points of intersection with the meridians.
2)Meridians are projected as straight lines, also of correct length 2лr/2
and perpendicular to the equator;
3)The meridians are correctly divided for the points of intersection with
the parallels, which are therefore straight lines, parallel to the equator;
4) The interval between parallels and meredians are the same, dividing
the projection into a number of true square; thus some times called the
“chess board” or “plate Caree”;
5)The scale along the equator and all meridians is true to the globe from
which the projection has been developed; but along all other parallels
the scale is too great; exaggaration increasing markedly away from the
equator;
6) On the globe the length of the parallel in latitude is 2лr x Cosҩ; on the
projection the length of every parallel is 2лr . The length of the projected
parallel ҩ is therefore magnified by sec ҩ times its true length.
As there is nothing to compensate for this glaring exaggeration in
the scale along the parallels, the projection is of limited use except
for a relatively narrow belt near the equator.
The pronounced exaggeration in the scale along the parallels,
accompanied by correct scale along all meridians, necessarily
entails pronounced exaggeration of areas away from the equator.
Summary:-
 The scale along the equator and all meridians is true; but scale along all
other parallels is magnified sec times.
 Purely with reference to distances measured at right angles to the
equator i.e. along the meridians, this projection may be styled as
“equidistant”.
* A reference globe (reference surface of the earth) is a scaled down model of the earth.
* This scale can be measured as the ratio of distance on the globe to the corresponding
distance on the Earth.
* Throughout the globe this scale is constant.
* For example, a 1:52,000000 representative fraction scale indicates that 1 unit (e.g.
km) on the globe represents 52000000 units on Earth.
* The principal scale or nominal scale of a flat map (the stated map scale) refers to
this scale of its generating globe.
* However the projection of the curved surface on the plane and the resulting
distortions from the deformation of the surface will result in variation of scale
throughout a flat map.
* In other words the actual map scale is different for different locations on the map
plane and
* It is impossible to have a constant scale throughout the map.
* This variation of scale can be visualized by Tissot's indicatrix explained in
detail below.
* Measure of scale distortion on map plane153
can also be quantified by the use of scale
factor.
* Scalefactor is the ratio of actual scale at a location on map to the
principal (nominal) map scale (SF = actual scale / nominal scale).
* This can be alternatively stated as ratio of distance on the map to the
corresponding distance on the reference globe.
* A scale factor of 1 indicates actual scale is equal to nominal scale, or no
scale distortion at that point on the map.
* Scalefactors of less than or greater than one are indicative of scale
distortion.
* The actual scale at a point on map can be obtained by multiplying
the nominal map scale by the scale factor.
* E.g., the actual scale at a given point on a map with the scale factor of 0.99860 at the
point and nominal map scale of 1:50000 is equal to (1:50000 x 0.99860) = (0.99860 /
50000) = 1:50070 (which is a smaller scale than the nominal map scale).
* Scale factor of 2 indicates that the actual map scale is twice the nominal scale; if the
nominal scale is 1:4million, then the map scale at the point would be (1:4million x 2) =
1:2million.
* A scale factor of 0.99950 at a given location on the map indicates that 999.5 meters on
the map represents 1000 meters on the reference globe.

154
 As mentioned above,
there is no distortion
along standard lines as
evident in the following
figures.
 On a tangent surface to
the reference globe,
there is no scale
distortion at the point
(or along the line) of
tangency and therefore
scale factor is 1.
 Distortion increases
with distance from the
point (or line) of
tangency.
155
* On a secant surface to the reference
globe, there is no distortion along
the standard lines (lines of
intersection) where SF = 1.
* Between the secant lines where the
surface is inside the globe, features
appear smaller than in reality and
scale factor is less than 1.
* At places on map where the surface
is outside the globe, features appear
larger than in reality and scale
factor is greater than 1.
*A map derived from a secant
projection surface has less overall
distortion than a map from a
tangent surface.
156
 * Map scale distortion of a
secant projections - SF =
1 along secant lines

157
*A common method of classification of map projections is
according to distortion characteristics - identifying
properties that are preserved or distorted by a projection.
*The distortion pattern of a projection can be visualized
by distortion ellipses, which are known as Tissot's
indicatrices.
*Each indicatrix (ellipse) represents the distortion at the
point it is centered on.
*The two axes of the ellipse indicate the directions along
which the scale is maximal and minimal at that point on
the map.
*Since scale distortion varies across the map, distortion
ellipses are drawn on the projected map in an array of
regular intervals to show the158 spatial distortion pattern
across the map.
The ellipses are usually centered at the
intersection of meridians and parallels.
Their shape represents the distortion of an
imaginary circle on the spherical surface after
being projected on the map plane.
The size, shape and orientation of the ellipses are
changed as the result of projection.
Circular shapes of the same size indicate
preservation of properties with no distortion
occurring.

159
• Equal area map
projections (also known
as equivalent or authalic
projection) represent areas
Gall-Peters cylindrical equal-area
correctly on the map. projection Tissot's indicatrix
• The areas of features on the
map are proportional to their
areas on the reference surface
of Earth.
• Maintaining relative areas of
features causes distortion in
their shapes, which is more
pronounced in small-scale
maps.  The shapes of the Tissot’s ellipses in this world map Gall-Peters
cylindrical equal-area projection are distorted; however each of
• Along the standard parallel
them occupies the same amount of area.
lines in this map (45° N and
45°S), there is no scale
distortion and therefore the
ellipses would be circular.

160
*Equal area projections are useful where:
* relative size and area accuracy of map features
is important (such as displaying countries /
continents in world maps),
* as well as for showing spatial distributions and
* general thematic mapping such as population,
soil and geological maps.
*Some examples are Albers Equal-Area
Conic, Cylindrical Equal Area, Sinusoidal
Equal Area, and Lambert Azimuthal Equal
Area Projections.

161
*In conformal map projections (also known as orthomorphic
or autogonal projection) local angles are preserved;
* that is angles about every point on the projected map are the same as
the angles around the point on the curved reference surface.
* Similarly constant local scale is maintained in every direction around
a point.
* Therefore shapes are represented accurately and without distortion
for small areas.
* However shapes of large areas do get distorted.
* Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles.
* As a result of preserving angles and shapes, area or size of features
are distorted in these maps.

* No map can be both conformal and equal area.

162
Tissot’s indicatrices are all circular (shape preserved)
in this world map Mercator projection, however they
vary in size (area distorted).
Here the area distortion is more pronounced as we
move towards the poles.
 A classic example of area exaggeration is the
comparison of land masses on the map, where for
example:
 Greenland appears bigger than South America
and comparable in size to Africa, while in reality
it is about one-eight the size of S. America and
one-fourteenth the size of Africa.
163
164
A feature that has made Mercator projection especially suited
for nautical maps and navigation is the representation
of rhumb line or loxodrome (line that crosses meridians at the
same angle) as a straight line on the map.
A straight line drawn on the Mercator map
represents an accurate compass bearing.
 Preservation of angles makes conformal map projections
suitable for navigation charts, weather maps, topographic
mapping, and large scale surveying. Examples of common
conformal projections include
Lambert Conformal Conic,
Mercator, Transverse Mercator, and
Stereographic projection. 165

 Equidistant projections are neither
conformal nor equal-area, but rather a
compromise between them.
166
* In equidistant map projections,
accurate distances (constant
scale) are maintained only
between one or two points to
every other point on the map.
* Also in most projections there
are one or more standard lines
along which scale remains
constant (true scale).
* Distances measured along
these lines are proportional to
the same distance
measurement on the curved
reference surface.
* Similarly if a projection is
centered on a point, distances to
every other point from the
center point remain accurate.
In this world map equidistant cylindrical projection (also known
as plate carrée), Tissot’s ellipses are distorted in size and shape.
 However while there are changes in the ellipses, their north-south
axis has remained equal in length.
 This indicates that any line joining north and south poles (meridian)
is true to scale and therefore distances are accurate along these lines.
 Plate carrée is a case of equirectangular projection with Equator
being a standard parallel.
*Equidistant projections are used in air and sea navigation charts,
as well as radio and seismic mapping.
*They are also used in atlases and thematic mapping. Examples of
equidistant projections are azimuthal equidistant, equidistant
conic, and equirectangular projections.

167
 The gnomonic map projection in
the image is centered on the
North Pole with meridians
radiating out as straight lines.
 In gnomonic maps great circles
are displayed as straight lines.
Directions are true from the
center point (North Pole).
 Directions from a central point
to all other points are
maintained accurately
in azimuthal projections (also
known as zenithal or true-
direction projections).
 These projections can also be
equal area, conformal or
equidistant.

168 Gnomonic projection

*True-direction projections are used in
applications where maintaining directional
relationships are important, such as
aeronautical and sea navigation charts.
*Examples include
*Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area,
*Gnomonic, and azimuthal
equidistant projections.

169
  Includes those projections which are
purely conventional in form;
 The idea of ‘projection’ as generally
understood, is not apparent;
 The parallels and meridians are drawn
so as to conform to some arbitrarily
chosen principle.

 Some projections do not preserve any of the properties of the reference surface
of the Earth;
 However they try to balance out distortions in area, shape, distant, and direction
(thus the name compromise), so that no property is grossly distorted throughout
the map and the overall view is improved.
 Included in this group are some very valuable projections,
especially those designed to show the whole world on one map.
 They are used in thematic mapping. Examples include Robinson
projection and Winkel Tripel projection, Mollwade Projection, Sinosodial Proj.
etc.

170

 The Mollweide projection is an equal-
area, pseudocylindrical, map projection
generally used for global maps of the
world or night sky.
 It is also known as the Babinet
projection, homolographic projection,
and elliptical projection.
171
The projection trades accuracy of
angle and shape for accuracy of
proportions in area, and as such is
used where that property is
needed, such as maps depicting
global distributions.
The projection was first published
by mathematician and
astronomer Karl (or Carl) Brandan
Mollweide (1774 – 1825) of
Leipzig in 1805.
It was reinvented and popularized
by Jacques Babinet in 1857, who
gave it the name homalographic
projection.
The variation homolographic
arose from frequent nineteenth
century usage in star atlases.[1]
Carl B. Mollweide created this pseudo-cylindrical projection in
1805. It is an equal-area projection designed for small-scale maps.
The Mollweide projection has several alternate names: Babinet,
Elliptical, Homolographic, and Homalographic
Method of Projection:
A pseudo-cylindrical equal-area projection. All parallels are
straight lines and all meridians are equally spaced elliptical arcs,
except the central meridian, which is a straight line. The poles are
points.
Linear Graticule:
The Equator and central meridian.
Properties:
 Shape: Shape is not distorted at the intersection of the central meridian and
latitudes 4044' N and S.
 Distortion increases outward from172
these points and becomes severe at the
edges of the projection.
173
 Choice of Map projection
 As all projections are made from geographical coordinates on the
earth’s surface to 2D map grids involve some sort of distortions.
 No projection has all the ideal qualities of conformity,
equivalence, and equidistance all in one graticule.
 The choice of projection is governed by a desire to minimize one or
more of the distortions of either angles, linear dimensions or areas.
 For this reason it is important to appreciate the process of map
projection and the way in which they introduce internal changes in
scale which give rise to these distortions.
 Some of the factors that influence the choice for map projection
include
 Purpose of the map and needs of the map user,
 Position of the area to be mapped on the globe
 Shape and dimensions of the area to be mapped,
 Practical considerations
 In the 15th, 16th, and 17th C. when there was a great expansion in
ocean going voyaging there was a great need for conformal navigation
charts.
 Mercator's projection which is conformal polar cylinderical met the
real needs of the time and still used today when a simple straight
course line is needed for navigation.
 B/c of its great importance in earlier ‘voyages of discovery it has
perhaps been overused.
 But it has no equivalence property it is not at all suitable to show
world wide distribution.
For example Brazil is about 5 times larger appears equal to the area of
Alaska.

Route finding is greatly assisted by gnomonic Azimuthal projections
as any straight line drawn on them represent the Great Circle distance
b/n points.
 Like Mercator projection other conformal projection, e.g. The
Stereographic Polar and Equatorial Azimuthal projections are suitable
for sea, air and meteorological charts.
 Suitable equivalent projections for distribution maps include those
developed by Lambert, whether Azimuthal, Cylindrical or Conical.
 But They are are of course not conformal and do have rather
noticeable distortions which may upset the users.
 It may not be good idea to use conical or Azimuthal projections for
world-wide distribution b/c the circumferential shape may again
upset users but for areas which are usually perceived as circular (e.g.
Polar regions) equivalent Azimuthal or conical maps are acceptable.
 An extremely important equivalent projections are the Albert’s
Equivalent Conical projection which are nearly conformal.
In the polar aspect they are excellent for mid-latitude distribution
maps, and do not contain the noticeable distributions of Lambert’s
 For topographic maps conformality and equidistance are essential.
 But there are no conformal Azimuthal projections which are
equidistant at the same time.
The conformal cylindrical projections are equidistant along the
tangent great circles, and the conformal conical projections are
equidistant along the tangent small circles.
 The UTM projection is a conformal cylindrical projection using a
secant cylinder so it meets the conformality and equidistance
requirements of topographic maps almost as well as ca be expected.
 However, the ideal solution for individual country’s topographic
requirements is probably an oblique aspect conformal conic or
cylindrical projection which is secant, and with the intersection circles
being individually chosen for the country concerned, and running
along the main axis of the country.
 Nevertheless, for each nation to use its own projection would make
international cooperation difficult.

 We are surrounded by detail and complexity.
To avoid being mired in confusion we often focus on universal
characteristics of features rather than on their individual or unique
qualities.
E.g. We speak overage annual rainfall, median family income, annual
or monthly average temperature, average slope/elevation, media age
of population, etc.
 We categorize features and eliminate visual complexity by simplifying
outlines.
 These are some of everyday actions that help us comprehend our
environment.
 These actions collectively are called generalization.
 Of all the tasks faced in analogue and now digital cartography and the
GIS, few are so fundamental to the process of map making and so
difficult to automate as that of generalization.
 As a map is an assemblage of graphic symbols that present a
view of some aspects of our understanding of the world, it is
necessary an understanding of knowledge.
 It is not simply a collection of facts, rather it is a caricature of
these facts which, in their transformation to map symbols,
assist the map
reader to understand spatial form and structure and to
distinguish important characteristics of the features that are
represented.
 The process of generalization requires the selection of those
features that are essential to the map’s purpose and the
representation of them in a way which is clear and informative.
 Both selection and representation can be expected to involve
a degree of information reduction relative to what is known.

 Objective of Cartographic Generalization

 The objective of generalization can be characterized very generally

by production of unequivocally legible and definite map image.
 To Prof Imhof the objective of generalization is “the highest accuracy
possible in accordance with the map scale, good geometric informative
power, good characterization of the elements and forms, the greatest
possible similarity to nature in the forms and colours, clarity and good
legibility, simplicity and explicitness of the graphical expression and
coordination of the different elements”.
 The map should be in accordance with its purpose and should really
serve the demands required by its users.
 One of the main conditions is that map should be consistent, which
means that what is qualitatively the same on the ground is also
represented in the same way everywhere on the map.
 In generalization one primarily attempts to achieve a balanced total
image.
 Why is Generalization Necessary?
Generalization becomes necessary for the following reasons:
a) Increasing density of the map contents due to scale reduction
 If the map contents do not decrease proportionally in direct ratio
to the reduction of the paper size, an increasing density of the map
contents arises at the smaller scale.
b) Limit of acuity of the eye
The reduction of objects and forms in a map cannot continue
indefinitely.
It should terminate where the limit of acuity of the eye is reached.
This is approximately 0.02mm at a distance of 30 cm from the eye.
When the contrast is good, fine lines with a line width of 0.04 mm
can still be distinguished.
This is also the approximate limit of printing capability.
c) Minimum sizes.
It may not be wise continue decreasing the size of map elements
down to the just perceptible and printable limits.
Reason for this are
Important objects should be immediately obvious, not just perciptible,
Differences in form should be clearly distinguishable,
Faint illumination and printing colours reduce the contrast,
The best reproduction and printing techniques and equipment are not
always available or may not be economical.
Therefore line widths and interspaces in minor landforms should
not be less than certain minimal dimensions.
 Factors of Generalization
i. Scale
Scale determines the image size of the object on a map.
A major constraint to the information content of a map is the
scale b/c it dictates the space available for map symbols.
 Hence map generalization may be regarded as a scale-
dependent process of information abstraction.
 Therefore, the degree of generalization is largely dependent
on the chosen scale.
ii. Source material.
material
 The source material for every map, which has to be
generalized, should be analysed.
 It should be either ungeneralized or else correctly generalized.
 In particular, for a series of scales of derived maps at
decreasing scales, attention should be paid to the degree of
generalization on the map used as base for the next scale in the
iii. Special condition for legibility
When the use of a map is known in advance, special map reading
conditions should be taken into account during generalization.
Maps made for walkers (travellers),
Maps to be read in dim light, bad weather conditions and map reading
while travelling by car, etc.
In all these cases particularly high demands have to be on the
readability and clarity of the map image.
iv. Symbol specification.
specification
 The drawing up of signs and symbols comes at the beginning of every
map design.
 It influences fundamentally the degree of generalization.
 In the symbol specification the size and colour of every symbol
occurring in the map should be accurately specified and represented.
 For every change of scale a new symbol specification is required.
v. Choice of colors
 The choice, the number and intensity of colour have their effect on
the generalization.
 Pale colour for example, requires wider lines and not too small
coloured area symbols.
 This again influences the size of the symbols and thus again, the
generalization.
 Special consideration in the choice of colours is necessary where a
map is designed for printing in different colour variant.
vi. Technical reproduction capability
 The quality of the presently available reproduction and printing
processes is sufficient to produce the finest, even scarcely
identifiable details.
 But often simpler, less expensive or quicker processes have to be
applied.
 Hence n order not to get lost important information through loss of
quality, the reproduction process should be taken into account
during the original design and generalization.
vii Revision
 For topographic maps in particular, there is the need to update.
 When revision is made certain elements of map contents, e.g.
Trigonometrically points and objects which are used for
topographic surveying should not be displaced.
 Thus, this influences the generalization.
 A map should be designed and generalized in such a way that the
revision elements can be inserted among the existing ones without
technical difficulties.
* Every map is, in principle, generalized.
* The finest details of structure and arrangement of natural and
man-made features cannot be truly & accurately represented.
* A scales of 1:50000 and larger, the planimetric accuracy of the
original survey data can be and larger, the plan metric accuracy of
the original survey data can be maintained.
* At a scale of 1:10 000, the double-line road symbols are no longer
true to scale.
* Every reduction of plans and maps gives rise to increasingly
dense image and to a large number of barely legible irregularities
in the line work.
* That which the eye can no longer clearly and unequivocally
recognize and explain should be graphically simplified and legibly
represented.
* Generalization should, therefore, begin at the point where
self-evidence of the graphic statement and legibility become
difficult.
Six of the fundamental conditions where generalization will
be required in digital cartographic environment include:
a) Congestion b) Coalescence c) Conflict
 d) Complication e) Inconsistency f)
Imperceptibility

 Congestion refers to the problem when, under scale reduction,

too many objects are compressed into small space resulting in
overcrwoding due to high feature density.
 Coalescence refers to the condition graphically collide due to
scale change. Features actually touch one another. This may
require displacement operation.
 Conflict may result in when, due to generalization, an
inconsistency b/n or among features occurs.
For e.g. If generalization of of a coastline eliminated a bay with a
city located on it, either the city or the coastline would have to be
moved to ensure that the urban area remained on the coast.
The condition of complication is
dependent on the specific conditions that
exist in a defined space.
An example is a digital line that changes in
complexity from one part to the next, such as
a coastline that progress from very smooth to
very crenulated .
.
 The Fundamental Operation of Generalization

Definition of Generalization in the manual

domain:
Generalization of reducing the information content of maps
due to scale change, map purpose, intended audience, and/or
technical constraints.

 In the digital environment, Robert McMaster and Stuart

Shea (1992) noted that “ the generalization process supports
a variety of tracks, including: digital data storage reduction;
scale manipulation; and statistical classification and
symbolization.
* Digital generalization can be defined as the process of deriving,
from a data source, a symbolically or digitally-encoded
cartographic data set through the application of spatial and
attribute transformations.
* The two writers set the objectives of digital generalization as: (i)
the reduction in scope and amount, type, and cartographic
portrayal of mapped or encoded data consistent with the chosen
map purpose and intended audience; and (ii) the maintenance of
graphical clarity at the target scale.
*The theoretical problem of generalization in the digital
domain is straightforward: the identification of areas to
be generalized and the application of appropriate
operations.
 Why Generalization is Needed: the theoretical
objectives of generalization

 The theoretical or conceptual elements of generalization

include reducing complexity, maintaining spatial accuracy,
maintaining a logical hierarchy, and consistently applying the
rules of generalization.
 Reducing complexity is the most significant goal of
generalization.
The question
Aspects and Fundamental Operations of Generalization
 Selection of relevant information from a geographical database
implies powers of abstraction that depend upon an understanding
of geographical concepts.
 We can describe this aspect of generalization as semantic
generalization.
 Graphic representation requires symbolization of the selected
information, which involves both the scale-dependent
transformation of geometric data and the choice of graphic and
textual elements to communicate the real world meaning of data.
 The aspect of generalization concerned with geometric
transformation is termed geometric generalization; it is dictated
by the interplay b/n semantic generalization, symbolization and
the constraints of map scale.
 Selection. This is the intellectual process of deciding which
classes of features will be necessary to serve the map’s purpose.
 No compromise; the choice is either to portray roads or not to
portray roads, to include or not include major hydrographic
features, or to name or not name all cities with populations over
150000.
 Cartographers must have a clear idea of the information to be
presented via the map.
 The overall conception of the map- i.e. Its purpose and
preliminary design- should govern the features and attributes to
be selected for portrayal.
 Once cartographers have selected features and attributes for
mapping, they are ready to move to the next step-generalization
i.e. Geometric generalization.
 Operation of Generalization.
 It is wise to define the following five terms: classification,
simplification, exaggaration, symbolization and induction .
 These five operations are controlled by cartographers to varying
degrees.
 When cartographers use classification, they order, scale, and
group features by their attributes and attribute values.
 When cartographers use simplification, they determine
important characteristics of feature attributes and eliminate
unwanted detail.
 When they use exaggeration, they enhance or emphasize
important characteristics of the attributes.
 The above three operations require cartographers to make a
series of operational decision.
 After making these decisions and applying any necessary
algorithms for the selected data, cartographers use graphic
marks to encode the information for visualization.
 This process of graphically coding information and placing it
into a map context is called symbolization.
 Before assigning marks to represent features and their
attributes, cartographers must make at least two conceptual
decisions.
 Finally, induction occurs when we make inferences from
interrelationships among features on the map.
 Cartographers have little control over induction.
 When we apply inductive generalization, we extend the
map’s information content beyond what the features
actually warrant; we do so by making logical geographic
inferences.
.
 For example, suppose you have January average
temperatures for a series of weather stations.
 Based on “logical contouring” one can construct a set of
isotherms.
 The drawn isotherms by way of interpolation allow
inferences about probable January temperatures in areas
b/n weather stations locations.
 Thus, the drawn isotherms convey far more information
than the temperatures recorded at the weather stations
themselves.
 Any such logical extension of data, founded on accepted
associations, is inductive.
 *
Operations of generalization
 As noted in the McMaster and Shea model the 3rd major
component in the process of generalization involves the
fundamental operations or how to generalize.
 The process can be broken into a series of logical operations
that can be classified according to the type of geometry of the
feature.
For instance, a simplification operation is designed for
linear features, whereas an amalgamation operator works on
areal features. The following table provides a framework for
the operations of generalization by dividing the process into
activities of raster- and vector-based processing.
Vector-based operators require more complicated strategies
b/n they operate on strings of x-y coordinate pairs and require
complex searching strategies.
In raster-based generalization however, it is much easier to
determine the proximity relationships that are often the basis
for determining conflict among the features.
 Vector-based operators include :
 simplification, smoothing, aggregation,
 amalgamation, collapse, Merging,
 Refinement, exaggeration, enhancement, and displacement.
 Cartographic Design
 Design is creation. Graphic design produces visual forms.
 Some maps, such as air photographs and satellite views, are mechanical
images.
 Others are presented in piecemeal fashion by arranging marks to form a
visual representation of selected spatial phenomena.
 In order to display the data describing the phenomena, we use unlimited
variety of graphic signs.
By relating graphic characteristics of the marks to attribute and attributes of
the data, we assign qualitative and quantitative meanings to the signs, and
they then become designated symbols.
By arranging the symbols in the horizontal plane, we endow them with
geographical meaning, and the display becomes a map.
 The Cartographic Language &
Symbolization
 Cartographic Language. One of the content of map has been
assembled, it is suggested that this information is then converted
into a cartographic language which expresses it in the form of a
map.
 Sometimes this is described as ‘encoding’, but at other times it is
presumed to have some parallel with verbal language and its
structure.
 It is accepted that a language involves vocabulary and grammar
(including syntax) then presumably the whole of the sign structure
of a map, including its arrangement and design, would have to be
covered by the term ‘language’.
 In a verbal language the individual bits which contain meaning
are words, and it is their linear relations (syntax) which control
their aggregation and combination into meaningful statements.
 In a map, arrangement is controlled by the facts of geographical
location.
 In cartographic communication, cartographic symbols can be
compared with words in spoken and written language.
 Words have a meaning in themselves and a collection of words,
written down according to certain grammar, together makes up a
certain information.
Similarly, one single symbol has a specific meaning, whereas the
total collection of symbols, placed in the map according to the
geographical distribution and the planimetric position of the
phenomena they represent, form the total spatial information to be
communicated to the map user.
Thus, it may be possible to say that map symbols are ‘building
stones of cartographic language’.
The study of signs or symbols is sometimes referred to by
scientific term “ Semiology”.
It is derived from the Greek words ‘semion’ = sign and ‘logos’ =
speech, word, reason.
 Symbolization
 In order to display the data describing the phenomena, we use an almost
unlimited variety of graphic signs.
By relating graphic characteristics of the mark to attributes of the data,
we assign qualitative and quantitative meanings to the signs, and they
then become designated symbols.
By arranging the symbols in the horizontal plane, we endow them with
geographical meaning, and the display becomes a map.
The process of creating graphic symbols to present feature attribute
values is part of what we call symbolization.
 Features exist in the real world, and the cartographer’s task is to portray
those features relevant to the map being created.
In the digital cartographic environment, the features existing in reality
have been digitized.
Cartographers take the digital records and symbolize them so that they
communicate reality to map users.
 Cartographers turn to the symbolization process after they have applied
classification, simplification, and exaggeration routines to features
selected for mapping.
Symbolization involves the use of visual variables to present the
data summarizations resulting from classification, simplification,
and exaggeration.
 This graphic coding makes the generalization visible.
 Clearly, symbolization is critical to any map’s success.
Good simplification and classification procedures can be nullified
by poor symbolization.
 Contrary to this, good symbolization can enhance the
effectiveness of simplification and classification.
Visual Variables.
 In any graphic system of communication, each sign must be
clearly distinguishable from every other sign, just as the letters of
the alphabet must appear different from one another, so that we
do not get mixed up as to the sounds they represent.
 Likewise by the systematic use of graphic similarities and
differences among the signs, we can express likeness and
distinctions among the data they symbolize.
 In order to represent the chosen characteristics of spatial data in
meaningful fashion, we must make use of variations in the graphic
qualities of the marks.
 These graphic qualities, which are analogous as communicative
media to the sounds of speech, have been called the visual
variables.
The term ‘visual variable’ was introduced in 1967 by Jacques Bertin in Semiologie
graphiique, 2nd ed. (paris Gauter-Villars, and Paris-La Haye: Mouton & Cie, 1973).

These are the perceptual dimensions of graphic character that

can be systematically modulated to convey meaning.
There are a number of such variations perceivable to our eyes.
 We can two groups of visual variables:
i) Primary visual variables
ii) Secondary visual variables
 We can make point, line, and area marks on the map appear
more or less distinctive and prominent by altering their shape,
size, orientation, or colour (hue, value, chroma/saturation).
 We call these graphic variations the primary visual variables.
i) Primary visual variables include shape, size, orientation, hue (colour),
value and chroma.
a. Shape- may be regular and geometric, as in the case of a square,
circle, or triangle.
Shapes could also be irregular, as in the case of a pictographic
version of a tree or bridge.
 b. Size- marks vary in size when they have different apparent
geometric dimensions- length, height, area, volume. The larger s sign,
the more important it is thought to be.
c. Orientation- a direction frame of reference is needed to define the
orientation of a graphic mark.
 d. Hue (colour)- the common term ‘colour’ refers to hue, name of
different colours such as blue, green, red, so on.
 e. Value (colour)- refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a mark,
whether black or any other hue.
 It refers to the perceptual scale of lightness and darkness.
In the perceptual scale of values, light is referred to as high value and
dark as low value.
 f. Chroma- as a graphic quality chroma refers to the degree to which a
hue departs in colourfullness from gray tone of the same value.
Chroma can range from a gray hue with no apparent colour pigment to a pure
hue with no apparent gray.
Terms such as saturation, intensity, richness, lightness, and purity are also
used to refer to chroma.
ii. Secondary visual variables- include arrangement (pattern) and
texture
g) Pattern refers to repetition of basic graphic elements (marks)
representing various combinations of these primary visual
variables produces areal graphic effect.
h) Texture- refers to the size and spacing of component marks that
make up a pattern.
A fine texture is produced by a close spacing of small marks.
This contrasts with a coarse textured pattern produced by an open arrangement of larger
marks.
i) Orientation of pattern- refers to the directional arrangement of
parallel rows of marks as they are positioned with respect to
some frame of reference.
 * Classes of Cartographic Symbols
Cartographic symbols may be grouped either based on a) dimension,
b) shape c) being qualitative or quantitative.
a) Based on the dimensional characteristics of the features cartographic
symbols may be classified into
i) point symbols ii) line symbols iii) area symbols
b) Based on shape cartographic symbols are commonly
classified in three main categories:
i) Geometrical (abstract) symbols (square, rectangle, circle, triangle, etc)
ii) Pictorial symbols- are self descriptive and popular (e.g. The ones used in
public buildings, railways stations, airports, etc) and need no explanation in
the legend but they are difficult to draw and are spacious and hence low
locational accuracy and cover other details.
iii) Associative symbols –are combination of geometric and pictorial
characteristics, e.g. School , church, cemetery, mosque, etc.
iv) Letter and Number symbols- are composed of letters and numbers.
c) Whether a given geographic feature is expressible in terms of
quantity or not, cartographic symbols are identified as
 Qualitative symbols or
Qualitative point, line and area symbols
 Quantitative Symbols
Quantitative point symbols
e.g. Proportional point symbols
Dot mapping using dot symbols
Quantitative line symbol
Flow lines and arrows
Arrow symbols
Flow line symbols

Quantitative area symbols

Choropleth maps
Isarithm maps
Isopleth maps

, area & volumetric symbols

Choropleth maps symbols
 An accurate topographical map can be used as a basis of
much geographical work and can provide much of definite
and exact information which can be used as a basis for
various purposes and as “ a starting point for further
analysis.”
 Large-scale topographic map is secondary only to the
ground itself to understand a terrain. (Monkhouse &
Wilkinson, 1963).
 Topographic maps or maps in general are tools in reality like
a whole bag of tools containing more ingenious devices than
a boy scout’s knife, and if properly used it will open almost
any geographical problem…” (A. A. Miller, 1949)
 The earth surface is seldom absolutely
fat, map makers have always been
challenged to convey information about its
undulations to map users.
 Because maps are drawn or printed on a flat sheets of
paper, they are not so well-suited to representing terrain
(relief), which is a 3-dimensional phenomenon on two-
dimensional surface.
 Even the 3-D physical models and a number of other
techniques provide partial solution to the problem.
 Both qualitative and quantitative methods are used to
represent a terrain: points like spot heights, lines like
contour lines and areas like hill shading.
• Three dimensional physical models & a number of other
techniques provide partial answer to the problem of
representing a3D terrain in 2-D flat maps.
• Each technique has difficulties of its own, however, and does
not provide the total answer to the problem.
• The available traditional and digital techniques of relief
models include:
i. Spot heights,
ii. Hachures,
iii. Layer tinting,
iv. Hill shading,
v. Physical models,
vi. Block diagrams,
vi. Physiographic diagrams,
vii. Contour lines,
viii. Micro-relief forms,
ix. Digital/Terrain Elevation Model (DEM/DTM).
a. Spot heights
This is the simplest way of relief representation.
A spot height on a map indicates the elevation of the earth’s surface at that
point, relative to some datum.
Sometime the number appear without a symbol.
But often times a point symbol of some type indicate the location to which the
elevation value refers.
Bench marks (BM) and trigonometric points are special type of spot heights.
They are established by geodetic surveyors and precisely located in the field and
then used as a reference points for further survey works in the area.
On maps special symbols are usually used to distinguish a bench mark and
trigonometric point from others (spot heights).
They provide an exact elevation values at an identifiable location.
But they do not provide useful height information and about the shape of the
terrain between the spot heights.
Nor do they convey any visual 3-D t of effect.
The same set of spot heights could conceivably represent a number of different
surface configurations.
Hence , spot heights are often combined with one or more other methods
 of terrain representation, e.g. contour lines
a. Spot heights
This is the simplest way of relief representation.
A spot height on a map indicates the elevation of the earth’s surface at that
point, relative to some datum.
Sometime the number appear without a symbol.
But often times a point symbol of some type indicate the location to which the
elevation value refers.
Bench marks (BM) and trigonometric points are special type of spot heights.
They are established by geodetic surveyors and precisely located in the field and
then used as a reference points for further survey works in the area.
On maps special symbols are usually used to distinguish a bench mark and
trigonometric point from others (spot heights).
They provide an exact elevation values at an identifiable location.
But they do not provide useful height information and about the shape of the
terrain between the spot heights.
Nor do they convey any visual 3-D t of effect.
The same set of spot heights could conceivably represent a number of different
surface configurations.
Hence , spot heights are often combined with one or more other methods
 of terrain representation, e.g. contour lines
b. Hachures
Hachures are also an older mode of representing relief.
 They are a form of shading, although different from the one used in
shaded maps.
They show the orientation of slope, and by their thickness and overall
density they provide a general sense of steepness.
Being non-numeric, they are less useful to a scientific survey than
Hach quite specific shapes of
contours, but can successfully communicate
terrain.
 c. Layer Tints.
 Also called hypsometric tints.
 Often used to fill in b/n contour lines or isobaths to give a stronger visual
indication of general elevation or water depth zones.
 Hypsometric tints are related to contour lines.
 They can be used to depict ranges of elevation as bands of color, usually in a
graduated scheme, or as a color ramp applied to contour lines themselves.
 A typical scheme progresses from dark greens for lower elevations up
through yellows/browns, and on to grays and white at the highest
elevations.
 Hypsometric tinting of maps and globes is often accompanied by a similar
method of bathymetric tinting to convey depth of oceans; lighter shades of
blue represent shallower water such as the continental shelf and darker
shades deeper regions.
D. Hill shading
It is also known by other names such as plastic shading and relief shading.
This is one of visually effective means of indicating the shape of a terrain.
It simulates the cast shadow thrown upon a raised relief map, or more abstractly
upon the planetary surface represented.
The shadows normally follow the English convention of top-left lighting in which
the light source is placed near the upper-left corner of the map.
It is the application of gray values to the map so that the modeling of the surface is
apparent.
The idea of hill shading can be visualized by imagining that a light has been placed
elsewhere in the upper left so that it shines on a three-dimensional terrain model.
The light is angled at 450 that it strikes obliquely, from the upper-left corner of the
model and shadows are cast toward the lower right.
If a vertical photograph is taken of this illuminated model, the result is a type of
hill shaded map.
This days computer assisted techniques have been used to produce hill shading
maps.
Traditionally drawn with charcoal,
airbrush and other artist's media,
shaded relief is today almost exclusively
computer-generated using
digital elevation models, with a resulting
different look and feel.
Much work has been done in digitally
recreating the work of Swiss master
Eduard Imhof, widely regarded as the
master of manual hill-shading technique
and theory.
 Imhof's contributions included a multi-
color approach to shading, with purples
in valleys and yellows on peaks.
Shaded relief today can be created
digitally, using a digital elevation model
(DEM) as its basis. The DEM may be
converted to shaded relief using
software such as Photoshop or ArcMap's
Spatial Analyst extension.
 One difference b/n an illuminated model and hill-shaded map
is that the shadows cast on the model always fall directly in
the direction of the light.
 This means that features that trend in the same direction as
the light falls often do not cast sufficient shadow to show their
actual relief.
 With hill shading, on the other hand, the gray values are
determined on the basis of angle of illumination and the
amount of light striking the surface.
 Shortcoming of Hill shading
 The successful creation of strong 3-D effect may produce very dark tonal values
in some areas, which decrease the visibility of other map details (symbols).
 It cannot provide an accurate height values.
 Hence to avoid such short comings spot heights are used with hill shading.
e. Physical Models
This is the most straight forward means of showing the 3-D
aspect of the earth’s surface.
In this case the third dimension does not have to be
simulated, as it does on maps, b/c it actually exists, and the hills
and valleys of the terrain are directly seen and understood.
 Despite their visual appeal, terrain models are not used
extensively.
This is b/c they are expensive to build and also involves
handling and storage problems.
* Physiorgaphic diagrams are a pictorial method of
representing the earth’s surface.
* They consist of an oblique view of a portion of the surface
from a position high above the ground.

* Pioneered by Hungarian-American cartographer Erwin Raisz,

this technique uses generalized texture to imitate landform
shapes over a large area.
* A combination of hill profile and shaded relief, this style of
relief representation is simultaneously idiosyncratic to its
creator and very useful in illustrating geomorphological
patterns.
*Block diagram is a a pictorial representation of
a portion of the earth’s surface, drawn as
though it were a picture taken at an oblique
angle from the window of a high flying aircraft.
*The oblique angle of view contributes to the 3-
D impression that is the hallmark of such
presentation.
*The terrain is drawn as though it were a piece
of the surface, sliced from the earth in a block,
and the sides of the block are usually shown in
the drawing.
Although block diagrams
are visually attractive and
provide a n effective 3-D
appearance.
 But they have
disadvantages to those of
physiographic diagrams.
 1st planimetric
displacement occurs.
 2nd , the oblique viewing
angle causes features with
high elevations to block the
view of lower features
located behind them.
 They are not designed for
the measurement off
distances or elevations.
 Exaggeration is usually
introduced.

u
Illuminated contours has
been developed to bring
more effective visual
*h. Illuminated
impression of relief to Contours
what is, otherwise, a
standard contour map.
In this method, the overall
map is covered with an
intermediate value of gray
or of some single color.
 An imaginary source of
light is placed at the
upper-left corner of the
map.
The contours on the side
of the landform facing the
light source are show as
white lines.
However, the contours on
the side away from the
light source are shown as
dark lines, as though they
are in shadow.
 The result is a strong impression of the region’s surface
relief.
The other advantage of this method, in addition to the visual
effect of relief, is that the contours can be read in the usual
way.
It is still possible to measure and estimate elevation . using
conventional techniques.
It is unfortunate that the method gives the unrealistic
impression that the terrain surface is made up of layers,
instead of continuous slopes.
 Contour is an
imaginary line that
joins points of equal
elevation above or
below some datum.
 The contours drawn on
topographic maps are
extremely important
b/c they provide the
basis for the
development of a great
deal of helpful
information about the
terrain.
* There are several rules to note when viewing topographic maps:
* The rule of V's: sharp-pointed vees usually are in stream valleys,
with the drainage channel passing through the point of the vee, with
the vee pointing upstream. This is a consequence of erosion.
* The rule of O's: closed loops are normally uphill on the inside and
downhill on the outside, and the innermost loop is the highest area.
* If a loop instead represents a depression, some maps note this by
short lines radiating from the inside of the loop, called "hachures".
* Spacing of contours: close contours indicate a steep slope; distant
contours a shallow slope.
* Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff.
Of course, to determine differences in elevation between two
points, the contour interval, or distance in altitude between two
adjacent contour lines, must be known, and this is given at the
bottom of the map.
Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but
there are exceptions.
Sometimes intermediate contours are present in flatter areas;
these can be dashed or dotted lines at half the noted contour
interval.
When contours are used with hypsometric tints on a small-scale
map that includes mountains and flatter low-lying areas, it is
common to have smaller intervals at lower elevations so that
detail is shown in all areas.
Conversely, for an island which consists of a plateau surrounded
by steep cliffs, it is possible to use smaller intervals as the height
increases.

 i. Contour Interval (C. I.)
 C. I. is vertical distance between two successive contour lines.
 Within one map C.I., in principle, has constant value.
 However, if the terrain relatively flat, a close interval is used so
that the small vertical differences can be seen.
 If, on the other hand, the terrain is more mountainous, a wider
interval is used so that map details are not overwhelmed by
detailed contour information.
 The choice of a good contour line interval is very important as
the qualitative and quantitative perception of an area depends
upon it.
 It is certain that the smaller the selected interval is, the more
accurate the relief is represented.
 However, an interval which is too small, results in a contour
line pattern, which is too dense, obscuring the other topographic
details.
The selection of C.I. can be influenced by factors such as
a) The scale of the map
- A closer c.i. is generally selected for large scale, detailed
maps so that the density of contour lines is sufficient to
provide a good representation of the shape of the terrain.
-A wider interval is used for small scales generalized maps, to
avoid overcrowding.
b) The type of area
- Two C.I. may be used on one map in areas which are
abrupt and very contrast in relief.
- In such case, a clear interval is used in the areas that have
relatively flat terrain and a wider interval is used in the
steep areas.
C ) The purpose of the map or requirement of map user.
d) Economic consideration.
e) The survey techniques applied.
Map scale High mountain Low mountain Lowland & hilly
areas areas areas
1:10 000 10 5 2
1:50 000 20 -25 10 -20 5
1: 100 000 50 25 5 -10
1: 250 000 100 50 10 -20
1: 500 000 200 100 20
1: 1 000 000 200 -500 100 20 -50
1. Index contour
 In areas of complex terrain, map makers commonly accentuate every
fourth or fifth contour by drawing in wider line weight.
 Such contour lines are called index contours.
 They are easily identified and followed, and have numbers
inserted at interval along their length to indicate the elevation
they represent.
2. Regular contours
 These are lines which are drawn with a finer line weight, spaced
at the regular interval and lie b/n the index contours.
 These may also be referred to as an intermediate contours and
as such they may or may not be numbered.
3. Supplementary Contours
These are additional contours, sually drawn at intervals that are some
regular fraction of the basic contour interval, often half.
They are often applied in areas of flat terrain where contours are widely
drawn.
 They are usually dawn as dashed or dotted lines to distinguish with other
contour lines.
They may start and end at any point.
4. Depression Contour
These are contour lines drawn with short ticks at right angles to the
contour line.
 The ticks point down slope toward the bottom of the depression.
5. Approximate Contours.
 These are contour lines drawn in inaccessible areas, heavy forest areas, and
where the forest cover obscure the view of the terrain in aerial photographs
or similar problem.
 In such areas contours lines represent likely surfaces and drawn dashed or
dotted to indicate their uncertain nature.
6. Carrying Contours
If a series of contours fall very close together If a series of
contours fall extremely together as in very steep areas or in
cliffy or water fall areas.
In this regard a single contour is drawn to represent several
contours that d be drawn to represent several other contours
that would be drawn had sufficient map space been available.
7. Underwater Contours
 These are contours that represent underwater surface which
once had been exposed before the area was flooded.
They indicate elevations above the same datum as the land
surface contours on the map.
8. Depth curve or Isobaths. These are contours drawn to
represent underwater configuration.
 In a number of circumstances knowing the terrain situation
(characterstics) of a particular area in advance is valuable.
 Activities such as engineering projects, military operations, land
utilization & management, geological & geomorphological
surveys, geographical studies, and others including day-to-day
activities as camping, hiking, etc.
 A number of map analysis techniques are used to determine
terrain characteristics.
Topographic maps are particularly useful for terrain analysis
projects.
Contour lines are the fundamental sources of terrain information
on such maps.
Contour Characteristics
 One characteristics of contours is that they all close by returning to the point
from which they started.
This is always the case although the closure does not necessarily occur on a
given map sheet. .
Contours that close on a given sheet represent either hills or depressions of
relatively limited size.
Depressions are also differentiated from hills by the use of depression
contours with their destinctive tick-marks.
 Second, the horizontal spacing of contour lines reveals the nature of the slopes
that the lines represent.
The vertical interval between contour elevations is constant, if not two c.i. in
case of very contrastive terrain.
 Therefore variation in horizontal spacing reflect variations in slope gradient.
- If the contour lines are evenly spaced on the map, the slope is uniform.
- Widely spaced lines indicate indicate a gentle slope .
- Closely spaced contour lines, on the other hand, indicate a steep slope.
- If the contour lines are closely spaced at the top and widely spaced at the
bottom, the slope has concave shape.
- If the contour are closely spaced at the bottom and widely spaced the top, the
slope has a convex shape.
Thirdly, the shape of contour reflects other aspects of the terrain.
For example,
Water-cut stream valleys frequently have what is characteristic as on V-
shaped cross-section or simply an inverted “U or V” shape, the contours that
cross valleys point in the upstream direction.
The closed ends of contours that represent ridges or drainage divides, on the
other hand, point in the downstream direction.
The relative sharpness or rounded form of the contours as they cross the
ridge line reflects the form of the ridge itself.

240Thus, the shapes of ridges, valleys, hills, and

depressions, as well as the characteristics of
slopes, are indicated by the arrangement of
contour lines on a map.