Section D

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 Digital Memories
• Introduction to Semiconductor Memories
• PROM
• ROM
• PLA
• PAL

2
• A memory unit is a device to which binary
information is transferred for storage and from
which information is available when needed for
processing.
• When data processing takes place, information
from the memory is transferred to selected
registers in the processing unit.
• Binary information received from an input device
is stored in memory and information transferred to
an output device is taken from memory.
• A memory unit is a collection of cells capable of
storing a large quantity of binary information.

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 Types of memory

• Random access memory (RAM)

• Read only memory (ROM)

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 RAM
• RAM accepts new information for storage to be
available later for use.
• The process of storing the new information into
memory is referred to as a memory write
operation.
• The process of transferring the stored information
out of memory is referred to as a memory read
operation.
• RAM can perform both the write and read
operations.

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 ROM
• ROM can perform only the read operation.
• This means that the suitable binary information is
already stored inside the memory, which can be
retrieved at any time.
• The existing information cannot be altered by
writing because the read-only memory can only
read; it cannot write.

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• The ROM is a programmable logic device.
• The binary information that is stored within a
programmable logic device is specified in some
fashion and then embedded within the hardware.
• The process is referred to as programming the
device.
• The programming here refers to a hardware
procedure that specifies the bits that are inserted
into the hardware configuration of the device.

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 Examples of PLD
• ROM is one example of programmable logic
device (PLD).
• Other such units are programmable logic array
(PLA), the programmable array logic (PAL) and
the field-programmable-gate array (FPGA).
• A PLD is an integrated circuit with internal logic
gates that are connected through electronic paths
that behave similar to fuses.

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• In the original state of the device, all the fuses are
intact.
• Programming the device involves blowing those
fuses along the paths that must be removed in
order to obtain the particular configuration of the
desired logic.
• A typical programmable logic device may have
hundreds to million of gates interconnected
through hundreds to thousands of internal paths

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 RAM
• A memory unit is a collection of storage cells
together with associated circuits needed to transfer
information in and out of the device.
• The time it takes to transfer information to or from
any desired random location is always the same,
hence the name random-access memory.

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• A memory unit stores binary information in
groups of bits called words.
• A word in memory is an entity of bits that move in
and out of storage as a unit.
• A memory word is a group of 1s and 0s and may
represent a number, an instruction , one or more
alphanumeric characters, or any other binary
coded information.
• A group of eight bits is called a byte.
• Most computer memories use words that are
multiples of eight bits in length.

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• The communication between a memory and its
environment is achieved through data input and
output lines, address selection lines, and control
lines that specify the direction of transfer.
• The n data input lines provide the information to
be stored in the memory and the n data output
lines supply the information coming out of
memory.
• The k address lines specify the particular word
chosen among the many available

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The two control inputs
specify the direction of
transfer desired: the write n data input lines
input causes binary data
to be transferred into the k address lines
Memory unit
memory, and the read
input causes binary data Read 2k words

to be transferred out of n bit per word

Write
memory.

n data output lines

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• The memory unit is specified by the number of
words it contains and the number of bits in each
word.
• The address lines select one particular word.
• Each word in memory is assigned an identification
number, called an address, starting from 0 upto2 k-1,
where k is the number of address lines.
• A decoder accepts this address and opens the paths
needed to select the word specified.
• Memories vary greatly in size and may range from
1024 words, requiring an address of 10bits to 2 32
words, requiring 32 address bits.

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 Read Only Memory

• A ROM is essentially a memory device in which

permanent binary information is stored.
• The binary information must be specified by the
designer and is then embedded in the unit to form
the required interconnection pattern. Once the
pattern is established, it stays within the unit even
when power is turned off and on again.

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• A block of ROM is shown.
• It consists of k inputs and n outputs.
• The inputs provide the address for the memory
and the outputs give the data bits of the stored
word which is selected by the address.
• The number of words in ROM is determined by
from the fact that k address input lines are needed
to specify 2k words.

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 k inputs n outputs (data)
2 X n ROM
k
(address)

ROM does not have data inputs because it does not

have a write operation.
Integrated circuit ROM chips have one or more enable
inputs and sometimes come with three-state outputs to
facilitate the construction of large array of ROMs

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• Consider a 32 X 8 ROM.
• The unit consists of 32 words of 8 bits each.
• There are five input lines that form the binary
numbers from 0 through 31 for the address.
• The five inputs are decoded into 32 distinct
outputs by means of a 5 X 32 decoder.
• Each output of the decoder represents a memory
address.
• The 32 outputs of the decoder are connected to
each of the eight OR gates.

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Internal logic of a 32 X 8 ROM 19
• Each OR gate must be considered as having 32
inputs.
• Each output of the decoder is connected to one of
the inputs of each OR gate.
• Since each OR gate has 32 connections and there
are 8 OR gates, the ROM contains 32 X 8 = 256
internal connections.
• In general, a 2k X n ROM will have an internal k X
2k decoder and n OR gates.
• Each OR gate has 2k inputs, which are connected to
each of the outputs of the decoder.

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• The 256 intersections shown in fig are
programmable.
• A programmable connection between two lines is
logically equivalent to a switch that can be altered
to either be close (meaning that the two lines are
connected) or open (meaning that the two lines are
disconnected).
• The programmable intersection between two lines
is sometimes called a crosspoint.
• Various physical devices are used to implement
crosspoint switches.
• One of the simplest technologies employs fuse
that normally connects two points.
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• The internal binary storage of a ROM is
specified by a truth table that shows the
word content in each address.
• For example: the content of a 32 X 8 ROM
may be specified with a truth table shown.
• At each address, there is stored a word of 8
bits, which is listed under the output
columns. The table shows only the first and
the last words in the ROM

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 Inputs Outputs
I4 I3 I2 I1 I0 A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

. .

. .

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
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Programming of ROM according to above table. 24
• The hardware procedure that programs the ROM
results in blowing fuse links according to the
given truth table.
• Every 0 specified in the truth table specifies a no
connection and every 1 listed specifies a path that
is obtained by a connection.
• For example, the table specifies the 8-bit word
10110010 for permanent storage at address 3.
• The four 0’s in the word are programmed by
blowing the fuse links between output 3 of the
decoder and the inputs of the OR gates associated
with outputs A6, A3, A2 and A0.
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• The four 1’s in the word are marked with a X to
denote a permanent connection in logic diagrams.
• When the inputs of the ROM is 00011. all the
outputs of the decoder are 0 except for output 3,
which is at logic 1.
• The signal equivalent to logic 1 at the decoder
output 3 propagates through the connections to the
OR gate outputs A7, A5, A4 and A1.
• The other four outputs remain at 0.
• The result is that the stored word 10110010 is
applied to the eight data outputs.

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 Combinational circuit implementation
• A decoder generates 2k minterms of the k input
variables.
• By inserting the OR gates to sum the minterms of
Boolean functions, we were able to generate any
desired combinational circuit.
• The ROM is essentially a device that includes both
the decoder and the OR gates within a single
device.
• By choosing connections for those minterms that
are included in the function, the ROM outputs can
be programmed to represent the Boolean functions
of the output variables in the combinational
circuit. 27
• The internal operation of a ROM can be
interpreted in two ways. The first interpretation is
that of a memory unit that contains a fixed pattern
of stored words.
• The second interpretation is of a unit that
implements a combinational circuit.
• From this point of view, each output terminal is
considered separately as the output of a Boolean
function expressed as a sum of minterms.
• For example, the ROM in previous example may
be considered as a combinational circuit with
eight outputs, each being a function of the five
input variables. 28
• Output A7 can be expressed in sum of minterms as
A7 = Σ(0, 2, 3,….. , 29)
• A connection marked with X in the figure produces
a minterm for the sum.
• All other crosspoints are not connected and are not
included in the sum.
• In practice, when a combinational circuit is
designed by means of a ROM, it is not necessary to
design the logic or to show the internal gate
connections inside the unit.
• The designer needs to specify the particular ROM
by its IC number and provide the ROM truth table.
• The truth table gives all the information for
programming the ROM.
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 Types of ROM
The required paths in a ROM may be programmed in
four different ways:
1. Mask programming: this is done by the
semiconductor company during the last
fabrication process of the unit.
• The process for fabricating a ROM requires that
the customer fill out the truth table he wishes the
ROM to satisfy.
• The truth table may be submitted in a special
form provided by the manufacturer or in a
specified format on a computer output medium.
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• The manufacturer makes the corresponding
mask for the paths to produce the 1’s and
0’s according to customer’s truth table.
• This procedure is costly because the vendor
charges a special fee for custom masking
the particular ROM.

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1. Programmable read-only memory (PROM): This is
more economical. When ordered, PROM unit
contains all the fuses intact giving all 1’s in the bits
of the stored words.
The fuses in the PROM are blown by application of
a high-voltage pulse to the device through a special
pin.
A blown fuse defines a binary zero and an intact
fuse gives a binary 1 state.
This allows the user to program the PROM in the
laboratory to achieve the desired relationship
between input addresses and stored words.
The procedure in case of ROMs or PROMs is irreversible.32
1. Erasable PROM (EPROM): This can be
constructed to the initial state even though it has
been programmed previously.
When the EPROM is placed under a special ultra-
violet light for a given period of time, the short
wave radiation discharges the internal floating
gates that serve as the programmed connections.
After erasure, the EPROM returns to its initial
state and can be reprogrammed to a new set of
values.

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1. Electrically-erasable PROM (EEPROM):
It is like the EPROM except that the
previously programmed connections can
be erased with an electrical signal instead
of ultraviolet light.
The advantage is that the device can be
erased without removing it from its socket

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 Combinational PLDs
• The PROM is a combinational programmable
logic device (PLD).
• A combinational PLD is an integrated circuit with
programmable gates divided into an AND array
and an OR array to provide an AND-OR sum of
product implementations.
• There are three major types of combinational
PLDs and they differ in the placement of the
programmable connections in the AND-OR array.

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Inputs Outputs
Fixed AND array Programmable
(decoder) OR array

Programmable read only memory (PROM)

Inputs Outputs
Programmable Fixed OR array
AND array

Programmable array logic (PAL)

Inputs Outputs
Programmable Programmable
AND array OR array

Programmable logic array (PLA)

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1. The PROM has fixed AND array constructed as
a decoder and programmable OR array. The
programmable OR gates implement the Boolean
function in sum of minterms.
2. The programmable array logic (PAL) has a
programmable AND array and a fixed OR array.
The AND gates are programmed to provide the
product terms for the Boolean functions, which
are logically summed in each OR gate.

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1. Programmable logic array (PLA) is the most
flexible PLD, where both the AND and OR
arrays can be programmmed.
The product terms in the AND array may be
shared by any OR gate to provide the required
sum of products implementation.

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 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
• The PLA is similar to the PROM in concept
except that the PLA does not provide full
decoding of the variables and does not generate all
the minterms.
• The decoder is replaced by an array of AND gates
that can be programmed to generate any product
term of the input variables.
• The product terms are then connected to OR gates
to provide the sum of products for the required
Boolean function.
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 40
PLA with 3 inputs, 4 product terms and 2 outputs
• The internal logic of a PLA with three inputs, and
two outputs is shown.
• Such a circuit is too small to be available
commercially.
• The diagram uses the array logic graphic symbols
for the complex circuits.
• Each input goes through a buffer and an inverter is
shown in the diagram.
• Each input and its complement are connected to
the inputs of each AND gate as indicated by
intersection between the vertical and horizontal
lines.
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• The outputs of the AND gates are connected to the
inputs of each OR gate.
• The output of the OR gate goes to an XOR gate
where the other input can be programmed to
receive a signal equal to logic 1 or 0.
• The output is inverted when the XOR input is
connected to 1(x XOR 1= x’).
• The output does not change when the XOR input
is connected to 0 (x XOR 0 = x).
• The Boolean functions implemented in this PLA is
F1 = AB’+AC+A’BC’
F2 = (AC+BC)’

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• The product terms generated in each AND gate are
listed along the output of the gate in the diagram.
• The product term is determined from the inputs
whose crosspoints are connected and marked with
X.
• The o/p of an OR gate gives the logic sum of the
selected product terms.
• The o/p may be complemented or left in its true
form depending on the connection for one of the
XOR gate inputs.
• The fuse map of a PLA can be specified in tabular
form.

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Product terms Inputs Outputs
A B C F1 F2

AB’ 1 1 0 - 1 -

AC 2 1 - 1 1 1

BC 3 - 1 1 - 1

A’BC’ 4 0 1 0 1 -
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• The PLA programming table consists of three
sections.
• The first section lists the product terms
numerically.
• The second section specifies the required paths
between inputs and AND gates.
• The third section specifies the paths between the
AND and OR gates.
• For each o/p variable, we may have T (for true) or
C (complement) for programming the XOR gate.
• The product terms listed on the left are not part of
the table, they are included for reference only.

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• For each product term, the inputs are marked with
1,0 or -.
• If a variable in the product term appears in true
form, the corresponding i/p variable is marked
with a 1.
• If it appears complemented, the i/p variable is
marked with 0.
• If the variable is absent in the product term, it is
marked with -.
• The paths between inputs and the AND gates are
specified under the column heading inputs in the
programming table.
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• A 1 in the i/p column specifies a connection from
the input variable to the AND gate.
• A 0 in the i/p column specifies a connection from
the complement of the variable to the i/p of the
AND gate.
• A – specifies a blown fuse in both the input
variable and its complement.
• It is assumed that an open terminal in the i/p of an
AND gate behaves like a 1.
• The paths b/w AND and OR gates are specified
under output heading.
• The o/p variables are marked with 1’s for those
product terms that are included in the function.
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• Each product term that has a 1 in the o/p
column requires a path from the o/p of the
AND gate to the i/p of the OR gate.
• Those marked with – are blown fuses.
• It is assumed that an open terminal in the i/p
of an OR gate behaves like a 0.
• Finally a T (true) o/p dictates that the other
i/p of the corresponding XOR gate be
connected to 0, and a C (complements)
specifies a connection to 1.
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• The size of a PLA is specified by the numbers of
inputs, the number of product terms, and the
number of outputs.
• A typical integrated PLA may have 16 inputs, 48
product terms, and 8 outputs.
• For n inputs, k product terms, and m outputs the
internal logic of the PLA consists of n buffer-
inverter gates, k AND gates, m OR gates, and m
XOR gates.
• There are 2n*k connections between the inputs and
the AND array, k*m connections between the inputs
and the AND and OR arrays, and m connections
associated with the XOR gates. 49
 Design
• While designing a PLA, there is no need to show the
internal connections.
• All that is needed is a PLA programming table from
which the PLA unit can be programmed to supply the
required logic.
• PLA can also be mask programmable or field
programmable.
• When implementing a combinational circuit with a
PLA, careful investigation must be undertaken in
order to reduce the number of distinct product terms,
since a PLA has finite number of AND gates. 50
 Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
• The PAL is a logic device with a fixed OR array
and a programmable AND array.
• Because only AND gates are only programmable,
the PAL is easier to program, but is not as flexible
as the PLA.
• Each input has a buffer-inverter gate and each
output is generated by a fixed OR gate.
• There are four sections in the unit, each being
composed of a three-wide AND-OR array.
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PAL with 4 inputs, 4
outputs and 3-wide
AND-OR structure

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• This is a term used to indicate that there are three
programmable AND gates in each section and one
fixed OR gate.
• Each AND gate has 10 programmable input
connections (shown 10 vertical lines intersecting
each horizontal line).
• The horizontal line symbolizes the multiple-input
configuration of the AND gate.
• One of the outputs is connected to a buffer-inverter
gate and then fed back into two inputs of the AND
gates.
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• Commercial PAL devices contain more gates than
the one shown.
• A typical PAL integrated circuit may have eight
inputs, eight outputs, and eight sections, each
consisting of an eight-wide AND-OR array.
• The output terminals are sometimes driven by
three-state buffers or inverters.
• While designing a PAL, the Boolean functions must
be simplified to fit into each section.
• Unlike PAL, a product term cannot be shared
among two or more OR gates.

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• Therefore, each function can be simplified by itself
without regard to common product terms.
• The number of product terms in each section is
fixed, and if the number of terms in the function is
too large, it may be necessary to use two sections to
implement one Boolean function.

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 Example
• Consider the following Boolean function expressed
in sum of minterms form
– W (A,B,C,D) = Σ(2,12,13)
– X (A,B,C,D) = Σ(7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
– Y (A,B,C,D) = Σ(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15)
– Z (A,B,C,D) = Σ(1, 2, 8, 12, 13)

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Simplifying the four minterms, we get
W = ABC’+A’B’CD’
X = A+BCD
Y = A’B+CD+B’D’
Z = ABC’+A’B’CD’+AC’D’+A’B’C’D
= W+ AC’D’+A’B’C’D

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 Truth Table

The PAL programming table is similar to the

one used for the PLA except that only the
inputs of the AND gates need to be
programmed.

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Product Term AND Inputs Outputs
A B C D W
1 1 1 0 - - W=ABC’+A’B’CD’
2 0 0 1 0 -
3 - - - - -
4 1 - - - - X=A+BCD
5 - 1 1 1 -
6 - - - - -
7 0 1 - - - Y=A’B+CD+B’D’
8 - - 1 1 -
9 - 0 - 0 0
10 - - - - 1 Z=W+AC’D’+A’B’C’D
11 1 - 0 0 -
12 0 0 0 1 -
59
The fuse map for PAL can be generated from
the truth table.
For each 1 or 0 in the table, we mark the
corresponding intersection in the diagram
with the symbol for intact fuse.
For each dash, we mark the diagram with the
blown fuse in both the true and the
complement inputs.
If the AND gate is not used, we leave all its
input fuses intact.
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Fuse map for PAL
as specified in above
table

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