2023 Survey Note

NJALA UNIVERSITY, SIERRA LEONE
GEOGRAPHY 124
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING AND MAP
READING
BY:
MR. SAFFA LANSANA Lecturer IGDS, NJALA UNIVERSITY
Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

COURSE OUTLINE
• The meaning of surveying
• Objectives of surveying
• Classifications of surveying: purpose, method,
instrument and technique used
• Traversing
• Chain triangulation
• Forward and backward bearing
• Surveying instruments

WHAT IS SURVEYING?
• Surveying, which has recently also been
interchangeably called geomatics, has traditionally
been defined as the science, art, and technology of
determining the relative positions of points above, on,
or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such
points.
• . In a more general sense, however, surveying
(geomatics) can be regarded as that discipline which
encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting
information about the physical earth and our
environment, processing that information, and
disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide
range of clients.
WHAT IS SURVEYING?
Today the importance of measuring and monitoring our
environment is becoming increasingly critical as our
population expands, land values appreciate, our natural
resources dwindle, and human activities continue to
stress the quality of our land, water, and air. Using
modern ground, aerial, and satellite technologies, and
computers for data processing, contemporary surveyors
are now able to measure and monitor the Earth and its
natural resources on literally a global scale.

Brief History of Surveying
The oldest historical records in existence today that bear
directly on the subject of surveying state that this
science began in Egypt. Herodotus recorded that
Sesostris (about 1400 B.C.) divided the land of Egypt
into plots for the purpose of taxation. Annual floods of
the Nile River swept away portions of these plots, and
surveyors were appointed to replace the boundaries.
These early surveyors were called rope-stretchers, since
their measurements were made with ropes having
markers at unit distances.

Brief History of Surveying cont..
Significant development in the art of surveying came
from the practicalminded Romans, whose best-known
writing on surveying was by Frontinus. Although the
original manuscript disappeared, copied portions of his
work have been preserved.
This noted Roman engineer and surveyor, who lived in

the first century, was a pioneer in the field, and his essay
remained the standard for many years.

The engineering ability of the Romans was
demonstrated by their extensive
construction work throughout the empire.
Surveying necessary for this construction
resulted in the organization of a surveyors’
guild.
Ingenious instruments were developed and
used.

Among these were the groma , used for
sighting; the libella, an A-frame with a
plumb bob, for leveling; and the
chorobates, a horizontal straightedge about
20 ft long with supporting legs and a
groove on top for water to serve as a level.

GEOMATICS
Geomatics is a relatively new term that is now
commonly being applied to encompass the areas of
practice formerly identified as surveying. The name has
gained widespread acceptance in the United States, as
well as in other English-speaking countries of the
world, especially in Canada, the United Kingdom, and
Australia.

GEOMATICS cont.…
The principal reason cited for making the name change
is that the manner and scope of practice in surveying
have changed dramatically in recent years. This has
occurred in part because of recent technological
developments that have provided surveyors with new
tools for measuring and/or collecting information, for
computing, and for displaying and disseminating
information.

SURVEYING OPERATIONS
• Surveying operation are very often associated with the
preparation of surveying drawings which may be
maps, plans, sections cross-sections or evaluation
drawings.
• Drawings are produced on either horizontal or vertical
plane. A drawing on a horizontal plane is known as a
map or plan.
• A plan is a true-to scale representation, which a map
may contain features which are represented by
conventional signs and or generalized symbols, these
are not seen true scale representation.

DETAILED FUNCTION OF A
SURVEYOR
1. The determination of the size and shape of the earth
and the measurements of all data needed to define
the size, position, shape and contour of any part of
the earth and monitoring any change therein.
2. The positioning of objects in space and time as well
as the positioning and monitoring of physical
features, structures and engineering works on, above
or below the surface of the earth.

Detailed functions of a surveyor cont.…
3. The development, testing and calibration

of sensors, instruments and systems for the
above-mentioned purposes and for other
surveying purposes.
4. The acquisition and use of spatial
information from close range, aerial and
satellite imagery and the automation of
these processes.

5. The determination of the position of the boundaries
of public or private land, including national and
international boundaries, and the registration of those
lands with the appropriate authorities.
6. The design, establishment and administration of

geographic information systems (GIS) and the
collection, storage, analysis, management, display and
dissemination of data.

7. The analysis, interpretation and integration of spatial
objects and phenomena in GIS, including the
visualization and communication of such data in maps,
models and mobile digital devices.
8. The study of the natural and social environment, the

measurement of land and marine resources and the use
of such data in the planning of development in urban,
rural and regional areas.

9. The planning, development and redevelopment of
property, whether urban or rural and whether land or
buildings.
10. The assessment of value and the management of

property, whether urban or rural and whether land or
buildings.
11. The planning, measurement and management of

construction works, including the estimation of costs.

OBJECTIVES OF SURVEYING
Surveying is used for three distinct purposes.
1. Surveying for the preparation of maps, plans etc. to determine
the relative positions of points, natural or artificial features of
the earth, so that they, may be correctly represented on maps.
2. To set out on the ground that the positions of construction of
engineering work.
3. Computations such as areas & volumes. The executions of
calculations for land areas, for earth works, volumes etc.
either based on field measurements on measurements
abstracted from maps plans and sections.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SURVEY
The five basic principles of surveying are:
1) Working from Whole to Part: As the name itself implies,
the survey work must be carried out from whole to part.
This means that when an area is to be surveyed, first of all,
a system of control points is established such that it covers
the entire area with a higher degree of precision. After this,
the minor control points and details are further established
with a lesser degree of precision. The main idea of this
principle is to prevent the undue accumulation of errors and
thereby control and localize the minor errors. If the survey
is carried out from part to whole, the magnitudes of errors
accumulated would be very high.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SURVEY cont..
2). Location of Point by Measurement From Two Points of
Reference: On the basis of this principle, the relative position of
the desired points to be surveyed must be located by taking the
measurement from at least two (preferably three) points of
reference, such that the position of the reference points has
already been fixed previously.

3) Consistency of Work: Another important principle of

surveying is the consistency of work.
It must be noted that keeping consistency in the method,
instrument, reading and noting observations, etc helps to
gain the desired level of accuracy.
4) Independent Check: According to this principle,

every measurement that is taken in the field must be re-
checked by adopting a suitable method of independent
field tests and observations so that any mistake if present
is not passed without notice.

5) Accuracy Required: According to this

principle of surveying; the proper method and
instrument must be used for the survey work on
the basis of the degree of accuracy required.

Reconnaissance Survey
This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be
surveyed. It may be either ground reconnaissance or aerial
reconnaissance survey. Reconnaissance is made on arrival to
site during which an overall picture or view of the area is
obtained.
The most suitable position of stations is selected, the purpose of

the survey and the accuracy required will be drawn, and finally
the method of observation will be established. This is a pre-
field work and measurement for phase.

Reconnaissance Survey cont..
It requires taking an overall inspection of the area to be
surveyed to obtain a general picture before commencement of
any serious survey.
Walking through the site enables one understand the terrain and
helps in determining the survey method to be adopted, and the
scale to be used.
The initial information obtained in this stage helps in the

successful planning and execution of the survey.

Reconnaissance Survey cont..
Objectives of reconnaissance survey:

To ascertain the terrain nature and the general condition of
the site.
To enable you decide or choose the method of survey to be
used.
To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route
or track through the area.
To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map
To estimate probable cost and draft a report.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Surveying can be broadly subdivided into Geodetic and plane
surveying.
1. Geodetic Surveying: The branch of surveying that covers a
large area and takes into account the true shape of the earth.
These surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.
In geodetic survey, large areas of the earth surface are involved
usually on national basis where survey stations are precisely
located large distances apart. Account is taken of the curvature
of the earth; hence it involves advanced mathematical theory
and precise measurements are required to be made. Geodetic
survey stations can be used to map out entire continent,
measure the size and shape of the earth or in carrying out
scientific studies such as determination of the Earth’s magnetic
field and direction of continental drifts.
GEODETIC SURVEY cont..
USES:
Geodetic Surveys carried out with higher degree of accuracy
to provide the spaced control points on the earth surface.
It Requires advanced instruments.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS cont..
2. Plane Surveying: The type of surveying which relatively small
areas and the area under consideration is taken to be a horizontal
plane. The mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane, or
in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to
horizontal distances and directions.
Plane Surveying can also be defined as the division of Surveying
in which all the survey works are carried based on the assumption
that, the surface of earth is a plane and curvature of the earth is
Ignored. In Dealing with the plane Surveying, plane geometry
and Trigonometry are only required. The Surveys having an area
of about 260km2 may only be treated as plane surveys.

PLANE SURVEYING Cont..
USES:
Plane Surveys which generally include the area up to
260km2 are carried out for engineering projects, on large
scales to determine relative positions of individual features
on the earths surface.
Plane Surveys are used to prepare the layout for

highways, canals, railways, construction of various
features etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING BASED ON
PURPOSE
Surveying is further classified based on purpose into the
following:
1. Control Survey: This is a survey made primarily to
establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary
points.
2. Boundary Survey: Boundary survey is the type of

survey made to determine the length and direction of land
lines and to establish the position of these lines on the
ground.

PURPOSE cont..
3. Hydrographic Survey: This is a branch of survey which deals
with the survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of
determining the profile of sea bed at different points, nature of sea
bed, current flow, nature of shoreline for navigation, water supply,
or subaqueous construction in form of chart.
4. Mining Survey: Mining survey is an aspect of surveying that is

done for the primary purpose of controlling, locate and map
underground and surface works related to mining operations.
5. Construction Survey: This is survey carried out to layout,
locate and monitor public and private engineering works.

PURPOSE cont..
6. Route Survey: This type of survey refers to those control,
topographic, and construction surveys necessary for the
location and construction of highways, railroads, canals,
transmission lines, and pipelines.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING BASED ON THE
NATURE OF FIELD
1. Topographic Survey: This is a type of survey carried out to
gather data in order to produce a map showing the
configuration/relief nature of the terrain and the location of
natural and man-made objects. These are surveys where the
physical features on the earth are measured and maps/plans
prepared to show their relative positions both horizontally and
vertically. The relative positions and shape of natural and man –
made features over an area are established usually for the
purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing
geographical information system.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING BASED ON THE
NATURE OF FIELD cont..
2. Cadastral/legal survey: This survey involves the
determining boundary and locations of new property
boundaries. These are surveys undertaken to define and record
the boundary of properties, legislative area and even countries.
It may be almost entirely topographical where features define
boundaries with the topographical details appearing on
ordinance survey maps.
In the other hand, accurately surveyed beacons or markers

define boundaries; corner or line points and little account may
be taken of the topographical features.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING BASED
ON THE NATURE OF FIELD cont..
3. Engineering surveys: These are surveys

undertaken to provide special information for
construction of Civil Engineering and building
projects.
The survey supply details for a particular

engineering scheme and could include setting out
of the work on the ground and dimensional
control on such schemes.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING BASED
ON THE NATURE OF FIELD cont..
4. City Survey: The city surveying is the branch of surveying
that is meant for an extensive coordinated survey of the city
area within the limits of a municipally made for the purposes.
City surveying is valuable when large scale improvements or
extension of the existing street systems, water supply, and
sewer systems, layout and construction of new roads,
development of the area in or near a city.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
BASED ON THE NATURE OF FIELD
cont..
5. Marine Survey: A marine survey is conducted to check for
marine vessels and generate report after examining all the
condition of the marine.
This is done in the case when the other person wanted to
purchase a new vessel and they wanted to have a survey of that
before purchasing a new one.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY BASED ON THE
METHODS ADOPTED
1. Photogrammetric Survey: This survey is based on

principles of aerial photogrammetry, in which
measurements made on photographs are used to determine
the positions of photographed objects on the earth’s crust.
2. Triangulation: Triangulation surveying is the tracing and
measurement of a series or network of triangles to
determine distances and relative positions of points spread
over an area, by measuring the length of one side of each
triangle and deducing its angles and length of other two
sides by observation from this baseline.

METHODS ADOPTED cont..

3. Traversing: It is the most flexible method of providing
controls for surveys, particularly in urban areas where the
construction of triangle is difficult and sometimes impossible.
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines whose lengths
and bearings can be determined.
4. Levelling: Levelling or leveling is a branch of surveying, the
object of which is to establish or verify or measure the height of
specified points relative to a datum.

5. Tacheometry: is a system of rapid surveying, by

which the horizontal and vertical positions of points on
the earth's surface relative to one another are determined
without using a chain or tape, or a separate levelling
instrument. The survey is been carried out using a
tachymeter or tacheometer. Tacheometer is a type of
theodolite used for rapid measurements and determines,
electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target.
The principles of action are similar to those of
rangefinders.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY BASED ON
THE METHODS ADOPTED cont..
6. GPS Survey: Surveying has changed substantially over
the years — what used to take months of observation,
measurement and geometrical calculations now takes a few
hours or days thanks to the introduction of GPS technology.
In fact, the surveying industry was one of the first to utilize
GPS technology, recognizing the potential benefits of the
technology.
Today, surveying professionals rely on GPS to provide
accurate and reliable data for clients across a wide range of
industries and applications.

Chain Surveying
This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying
and is still extensively in use.
It is based on the principle that of triangle in set out
upon the ground and the lengths of the sides measured it
may latter be plotted in the drawing office to any desired
scale.
The only instruments required are a pair compasses and
a scale rule.

Chain Surveying cont..
The chain, is usually made of steal wire and consist of long
links joined by shorter links. It is designed for hard usage and
is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and
offsets of small surveys.
The chain consists of 1 hundred long link, each ten link being
marked by a brass tally. To avoid confusion in reading chains
and marked similarly from both ends. ie the tally for 2m and
18m is the same so that measurements maybe commenced
with either end of the chain.

TRAVERSING
It is the most flexible method of providing controls for surveys,
particularly in urban areas where the construction of triangle is
difficult and sometimes impossible. A traverse consists of a
series of straight lines whose lengths and bearings can be
determined. The lines are known as legs and end points as
stations. Traverse are described as closed or open.
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of

connected survey lines form the framework and the directions
and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an
angle measuring instrument and tape or chain respectively.

Types of traversing
Traversing can be categorized into two types; name, open and
closed.
1. Open Traverse: is one in which starting point and
terminal does not return to the original starting position.
E.g. roads, rivers, railway lines will be measured using
the above method.

Types of traversing cont..
2. Closed Traverse: is one whose starts or end points
(terminals) are fixed coordinated point. A traverse which
commences and condenses on the same station is a closed loop
traverse. Compound, ponds, football field and volley ball field
can be measured using the above method.

Types of traversing cont..
The observations on a closed traverse can be numerically
checked and the result is mathematically adjusted whereas
opened traverse cannot be adjusted or checked.
CHAIN TRIANGULATION
 Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in
a triangle formed by three survey control points. Using
trigonometry and the measured length of just one side, the other
distances in the triangle are calculated.
 To prepare overall sketch of the given plot and reference the
traverse with sketch. Two way measurement of each traverse
legs.(forward and backward) To prepare detailing in chain
traverse by linear offsets perpendicular, oblique, etc.
BEARING
The horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the
survey line is termed as bearing of the survey line. In other
words, the angular degrees from one point to another in
surveying is also regarded as bearing.
Magnetic Bearing: The magnetic needle of the compass

always points towards the magnetic north-south (N-S) direction
indicating earth’s magnetic axis. Since this direction is same at
all the places on the earth’s surface, it is universally used as the
reference direction. The angle made by survey line in a
clockwise direction with reference to magnetic N-S line is
termed as magnetic bearing of the line. The value of magnetic
bearing ranges from 0 o to 360o

BEARING cont..
True Bearing: The geographical north of earth is different
from the magnetic north. Hence, the angle which the survey
line makes with the true geographical north is termed as true
bearing of the survey line.
Types of bearing
1. Fore (forward) Bearing (FB): The angle measured in the
direction of survey line from starting survey station to the
next station is called fore bearing.
2. Back Bearing (BB): It is the bearing of the survey line
taken from the forward survey station to the preceding
station from which the fore bearing was taken earlier.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION
These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both
by manufacturers when quoting specifications for their
equipment and on site by surveyors to describe results obtained
from field work.
Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or
minus) in a measurement, while;
Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no
such things as an absolutely exact measurement, a set of
observations that are closely grouped together having small
deviations from the sample mean will have a small standard
error and are said to be precise

Errors in Measurement
As in levelling and linear measurements, measurements are

subject to three sources of error.
Sources of errors:
1. Instrumental Errors: These are cumulative in effect and
are caused by defects in the instrument, such as poor design
or construction, or the instrument being out of adjustment.
2. Personal Errors: These errors in adjusting, readings,
handling and sighting the theodolite, are due to human
limitations and are unavoidable.

Personal errors cont..
They are, on the whole, compensating, and their effect may be
reduced by increasing the number of angular observations and
by adopting a mean value.
There is no excuse, however, for gross carelessness due to:
instrument not being set exactly over the station mark
level bubbles not perfectly centred
poor focusing
careless plumbing of a target causing the sighted point not to
be over the mark.

Errors in Measurement cont..
3. Environmental Errors: These arise from variations in the
following:
Wind, that can vibrate the theodolite or deflect a plumb bob.
Temperature, if extreme hot or cold, may cause unequal
expansion of different parts of a theodolite.
Refraction is the bending of the line of sight as it passes
through different air densities. This does not apply to short
sights. The effect is to cause an apparent shimmering for the
observed target. A sight to a target on a very hot day is likely
to produce this effect.
Settling of the tripod in soft ground such as sand or a swamp.

Types of errors
1. Gross Errors: These are mistakes on the part of the
observer, due to carelessness, inexperience or fatigue. They
are shown listed previously under the heading `Personal
Errors’.
2. Systematic Errors: Errors of this type are often due to the
instrumental defects as noted previously under the heading
`Instrumental Errors’.
3. Random Errors: Small random errors cannot be avoided.
They are due mainly to environmental conditions but may
also be due to normal differences and imperfections
between individual observers with regard to their sight and
touch (eg reading scales and pointing to targets). The
resulting small errors tend to be compensatory. Extreme
wind or temperature can cause errors.

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NJALA UNIVERSITY, SIERRA LEONE

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

This noted Roman engineer and surveyor, who lived in

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

3. The development, testing and calibration

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

6. The design, establishment and administration of

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

8. The study of the natural and social environment, the

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

10. The assessment of value and the management of

11. The planning, measurement and management of

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

3) Consistency of Work: Another important principle of

4) Independent Check: According to this principle,

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

5) Accuracy Required: According to this

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

The most suitable position of stations is selected, the purpose of

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

The initial information obtained in this stage helps in the

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Objectives of reconnaissance survey:

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

It Requires advanced instruments.

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Plane Surveys are used to prepare the layout for

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

2. Boundary Survey: Boundary survey is the type of

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

4. Mining Survey: Mining survey is an aspect of surveying that is

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

In the other hand, accurately surveyed beacons or markers

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

3. Engineering surveys: These are surveys

The survey supply details for a particular

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

1. Photogrammetric Survey: This survey is based on

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

5. Tacheometry: is a system of rapid surveying, by

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Njala University–fostering intellectual and personal development in Sierra Leone

Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of