Wollo University

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Department of Construction Technology and Management

Lecture Note On

Modern Construction Technology

(CoTM5282)

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CHAPTER FOUR: BUILDING STRUCTURE MAINTENANCE

1. Damages in construction
2. Testing of concrete
3. Non-destructive concrete testing
4. Building structure maintenance

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 4.1.1. DAMAGES IN CONSTRUCTION

The following are some typical causes of construction damages

 Fire  Shrinkage
 Earth Quake  Moisture
 Hurricanes  Deterioration
 Settlement  Termites
 Impact  Acid /Alkali
 Fatigue  Vandalism

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1. Cracking of concrete

 Cracking affects the appearance of concrete. In some cases it affects its

structural adequacy and durability.
 In reinforced concrete cracking allows easier access to air and moisture
which can cause steel to rust and eventually weaken the concrete.

Cause of cracks in buildings

– Moisture change
– Thermal variation
– Elastic deformation
– Creep
– Chemical reaction
– Foundation movement and settlement of soil
– Vegetation
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 Classification of Cracks according to ACI 224.1R-07
Stages of Cracking
 Cracking of plastic concrete
1 - Plastic shrinkage cracking
 When moisture evaporates from the surface of freshly
placed concrete faster than it is replaced by bleed water,
the surface concrete shrinks.
 It appears in hot & windy weather condition.
 To avoid this type of cracking concrete should be compacted and finished as fast
as possible on hot days and the forms should be dampened to protect the concrete
from heat and wind.

2 - Plastic Settlement cracking

Concrete has a tendency to continue to consolidate
after initial placement, vibration, and finishing. 5
 Classification according ACI 224.1R-07
 Cracking of hardened Concrete
1. Drying shrinkage
Drying shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture from
the cement paste constituent, which can shrink by as much as 1%.
2 - Thermal stresses
Temperature differences within a concrete structure may be
caused by portions of the structure losing heat of hydration at different rates or by the weather conditions cooling
or heating one portion of the structure to a different degree or at a different rate than another portion of the
structure.

3 - Chemical reaction
Deleterious chemical reactions may cause
cracking of concrete 6
 Classification according ACI 224.1R-07

4 - Weathering
The weathering processes that can cause cracking include freezing and thawing, wetting and drying,
and heating and cooling.
5 - Corrosion of reinforcement
Corrosion of a metal is an electrochemical process that requires
an oxidizing agent, moisture, and electron flow within the metal;
a series of chemical reactions takes place on and adjacent to the
surface of the metal
6 - Poor construction practices
A wide variety of poor construction practices can result in cracking in concrete structures.
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 Classification according ACI 224.1R-07
7 - Construction overloads
Construction loads can often be more severe than those experienced in service.
8 - Errors in design and detailing
The effects of improper design or detailing range from poor appearance to lack of
serviceability to catastrophic failure.
9 - Externally applied loads
It is well known that load induced tensile stresses result in
cracks in concrete members.

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 Classification according to loading
Structural Cracks
1. Flexural Cracks
Cracking in reinforced concrete flexural members subjected to bending starts in the tensile
zone. e.g: at the soffit of beams.
2 - Shear Cracks
These are caused by structural loading or movement after the concrete has hardened. Shear cracks are
better described as diagonal tension cracks due to the combined effects of bending and shearing
action. Beams and columns are generally prone to such cracking .
3- Internal Micro-Cracks
Micro cracking can occur in severe stress zones,
due to large differential cooling rates, or due to compressive loading.
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 Non- Structural Cracks
 Pre-hardening (Plastic) Cracks
These cracks occur within a few hours after the placement and compaction of concrete, but before the concrete has fully
hardened.
1. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
Caused by rapid drying of the concrete surface, within the
first six hours (even within minutes) after placement, as a
result of large moisture losses from the surface

2- Plastic Settlement Cracks

Caused by concrete settling under its own weight, especially when there is excessive bleeding and the settlement is impeded
by a local restraint.
3- Cracks Caused by Formwork Movement
Movement of formwork after the concrete has started to stiffen but before it has gained enough strength to support its
own weight, can cause cracking
These cracks may occur during placement and compaction due to movement of a weak formwork. It is essential to ensure
that the formwork is strong and well propped and braced. 10
 Non- Structural Cracks
 Cracks in Hardened Concrete
Cracking in hardened concrete can be attributed to drying shrinkage (loss of moisture), early thermal
contraction (movement) and structural and chemical effects.
1 - Craze Cracking
Characterized by a series of very fine closely spaced map pattern cracks which are caused by the shrinkage
of the cementitious material of the surface layer of concrete.
2 - Drying Shrinkage Cracks
Occur when concrete reduces in volume as a result of moisture
losses into the atmosphere in its hardened state.

3 - Early Thermal Contraction (Movement) Cracks

All immature concrete elements are subject to thermal contraction or movement for up to 14 days after
placement, due to temperature rise from the heat of hydration of the cementitious material. 11
 Non- Structural Cracks
 Cracks due to Chemical Effects
The expansive effects of chemical reaction products from corrosion of steel reinforcement on
alkali-aggregate reaction can also cause cracking in hardened concrete.
1- Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement
Some cracks are induced by the expansive forces associated with corrosion of the steel
reinforcement which crack and subsequently spall the concrete
2 - Alkali -Silica Reaction Cracks
The chemical reaction between the alkali hydroxide in the concrete
and reactive aggregates produces an expansive gel, causing map
cracking or directional cracking (pre-stressed members) in the structure

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 4.2. TESTING OF CONCRETE

4.2.1. Quality control tests

Two simple tests are used to control the quality of concrete:

1. SLUMP TEST is used when the concrete is in the plastic state.

2. COMPRESSION TEST is used when concrete is in the hardened state.

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 4.2. TESTING OF CONCRETE

3. Compaction factor test Measure the degree of compaction required for a concrete.

4. Vebe Time test: Measures the work (time) needed to compact concrete.

5. Flow Test: Determine the flow of cement pastes and cement mortars by
measuring the spread in mm

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 4.2. TESTING OF CONCRETE

4.2.2. Partial destructive tests

1. Pullout test
2. Pull off test
3. Core test
4. Other tests
4.1.Tensile tests
4.2. Flexure test
4.3. Splitting Test
4.4. Chemical analysis
4.5. Microscopical examination
4.6. Moisture measurements in concrete

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 4.2.2. Partial destructive tests

1. Pullout test
 The pullout test measures the force required to pull an embedded metal inserted with an enlarged
head from a concrete specimen or a structure.
 The pullout test is widely used during construction to estimate the in-place strength of concrete to
help decide whether critical activities such as form removal, application of post tensioning, or
termination of cold weather protection can proceed.
 There are two options for the pullout test:
1. DANISH LOCK TEST which requires that the head be cast into the concrete at the time of
construction. This test gives a good indication of near surface compressive strength.
2. Building Research Establishment, UK (BRE) PULLOUT involves drilling a hole and inserting
a “fixing” which is pulled out. The advantage of this test is that it does not require a head to be cast
into the concrete during construction. The disadvantage is that the test really measures tensile
strength and is then calibrated to compressive strength.

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2. Pull off test
• This test involves attaching a plate to the concrete using epoxy resin and, after curing has
taken place, measuring the force required to pull the plate off.
• This test scars the concrete but gives a measure of the near surface tensile strength which
can be converted to the compressive strength provided a correlation exists between the
compressive strength and tensile strength for the concrete mix being investigated.
3. Core test
 In most structural investigations or diagnoses extraction of core samples is unavoidable
and often essential.
 Cores are usually extracted by drilling using a diamond tipped core cutter cooled by
water.
 Broken samples, for example, due to popping, spalling and delamination, are also
commonly retrieved for further analysis.
 The selection of the locations for extraction of core samples is made after non-destructive
testing which can give guidance on the most suitable sampling areas.
 For instance, a covermeter can be used to ensure there are no reinforcing bars where the
core is to be taken; or the ultrasonic pulse velocity test can be used to establish the areas
of maximum and minimum pulse velocity that could indicate the highest and lowest
compressive strength areas in the structure. 17
4.2.2. Partial destructive tests

The extracted cores can be subjected to a series of tests and serve multiple functions such as:
 identifying the presence of deleterious matter in the concrete
 determining the strength of the concrete for design purposes
 predicting the potential durability of the concrete
 confirming the mix composition of the concrete for dispute resolution
 determining specific properties of the concrete not attainable by non-destructive
methods such as intrinsic permeability.

Other Tests
1. Tensile tests
• Tensile tests are mainly carried out on the reinforcing bars used in concrete
construction.
• The application of a tensile test to concrete is not normally required because concrete is
not designed to resist direct tension.
• However, knowledge of tensile strength is of value in estimating the load under which
cracking will develop.
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4.2.2. Partial destructive tests

2. Flexure test
 In a flexure test on a beam the theoretical maximum tensile stress reached in the bottom
fibre of the test beam is known as the modulus of rupture.

 Nevertheless, the test is very useful, especially in relation to the design of road slabs and
airfield runways because the flexure tension there is a critical factor.
 The value of the modulus of rupture depends on the dimensions of the beam and, above
all, on the arrangement of loading.
 Two systems could be used: a) central point load, and b) symmetrical two point load that
produces a constant bending moment between the load points.
3. Splitting Test
• An indirect method of applying tension in the form of splitting.
• In this test a concrete cylinder, of the type used for compression tests, is placed with its
axis horizontal between the plates of a testing machine, and the load is increased until
failure by splitting along the vertical diameter takes place.
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 4.2.2. Partial destructive tests

4. Chemical analysis
 The chemical composition of concrete as determined from extracted core
samples is usually essential in making an informed assessment of the concrete
condition, its potential durability and suitability for continued use.
 These include, for instance, cement content, chloride content, sulphate content,
original water content and water cement ratio, aggregate grading , the type and
amount of admixtures and pH value.

5. Microscopical examination
• The various Microscopical methods, which may be applied to the study of
hardened concrete, are derived from the science of petrography.
• Microscopical methods have been used in research since the chemistry and
mineralogy of cements were first investigated.
• Therefore, ASTM C856-95 only offers guidance on the examination rather
than a standard procedure. 20
 4.2.3. Non-Destructive concrete Testing

 It is often necessary to test concrete structures after the concrete has hardened to
determine whether the structure is suitable for its designed use.
 Ideally such testing should be done without damaging the concrete.
 The tests available for testing concrete range from the completely non-
destructive, where there is no damage to the concrete, through those where the
concrete surface is slightly damaged, to partially destructive tests, such as core
tests and pullout and pull off
 The range of properties that can be assessed using non-destructive tests and partially
destructive tests is quite large and includes :
 Fundamental parameters as density,
 Elastic modulus and strength as well as
Surface hardness and surface absorption, and
Reinforcement location, size and distance from the surface.
In some cases it is also possible to check the quality of workmanship and
structural integrity by the ability to detect voids, cracking and delamination.
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 4.2.3. Non-Destructive concrete Testing

 Typical situations where non-destructive testing may be useful are, as follows:

o Quality control of pre-cast units or in situ construction
o Removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material supplied owing to apparent
non-compliance with specification
o Confirming or negating doubt concerning the workmanship involved in batching, mixing,
placing, compacting or curing of concrete
o Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork removal, cessation of curing,
prestressing, load application or similar purpose
o Location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombing and similar
defects within a concrete structure
o Determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core cutting, load testing or
other more expensive or disruptive tests
o Determining the position, quantity or condition of reinforcement
o Determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in the selection of
sample Locations representative of the quality to be assessed
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 4.2.3. Non-Destructive concrete Testing

 Typical situations where non-destructive testing may be useful are, as follows:

o Confirming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete resulting from such
factors as Overloading, fatigue, external or internal chemical attack or change, fire,
o Environmental effects
o Assessing the potential durability of the concrete
o Monitoring long term changes in concrete properties
o Providing information for any proposed change of use of a structure for insurance or
for Change of ownership.

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 4.2.3. Non-Destructive concrete Testing

Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures

The following methods, with some typical applications, have been used for the NDT of
concrete
1. Visual inspection, which is an essential precursor to any intended non-destructive test. An
experienced civil or structural engineer may be able to establish the possible cause(s) of
damage to a concrete structure and hence identify which of the various NDT methods
available could be most useful for any further investigation of the problem.
2. Half-cell electrical potential method, used to detect the corrosion potential of reinforcing
bars in concrete.
3. Schmidt/rebound hammer test, used to evaluate the surface hardness of concrete.
4. Carbonation depth measurement test, used to determine whether moisture has reached
the depth of the reinforcing bars and hence corrosion may be occurring.
5. Permeability test, used to measure the flow of water through the concrete.
6. Penetration resistance or Windsor probe test, used to measure the surface hardness and
hence the strength of the surface and near surface layers of the concrete.
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 4.2.3. Non-Destructive concrete Testing

Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures

7. Covermeter testing, used to measure the distance of steel reinforcing bars beneath the
surface of the concrete and also possibly to measure the diameter of the reinforcing bars.
8. Radiographic testing, used to detect voids in the concrete & the position of stressing ducts.
9. Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mainly used to measure the sound velocity of the
concrete and hence the compressive strength of the concrete.
10. Sonic methods using an instrumented hammer providing both sonic echo and
transmission methods.
11. Tomographic modelling, which uses the data from ultrasonic transmission tests in two or
more directions to detect voids in concrete.
12. Impact echo testing, used to detect voids, delamination and other anomalies in concrete.
13. Ground penetrating radar or impulse radar testing, used to detect the position of
reinforcing bars or stressing ducts.
14. Infrared thermography, used to detect voids, delamination and other anomalies in
concrete and also detect water entry points in buildings.
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 1. VISUAL INSPECTION

 Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests. It can often
provide valuable information to the well trained eye.
 Visual features may be related to workmanship, structural serviceability, and material
deterioration and it is particularly important that the engineer is able to differentiate
between the various signs of distress which may be encountered.
 These include for instance, cracks, pop-outs, spalling, disintegration, colour
change, weathering, staining, surface blemishes and lack of uniformity.
Tools and Equipment for Visual Inspection
 measuring tapes or rulers, markers, thermometers, anemometers
 Binoculars, telescopes, bore scopes and endoscopes
 A crack width microscope or a crack width gauge while a magnifying glass or portable
microscope is handy for close up examination.
 A good camera for pictorial documentation of defects, and a portable colour chart is helpful in
identifying variation in the colour of the concrete.
 A complete set of relevant drawings showing plan views, elevations and typical structural
details allows recording of observations to be made.
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Sketches of typical defects found by visual inspection

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Sketches of typical defects found by visual inspection

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Sketches of typical defects found by visual inspection

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Sketches of typical defects found by visual inspection

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Sketches of typical defects found by visual inspection

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 2. HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD

Fundamental principle
 Essentially, electrical potential of steel reinforcement is measured relative to a
reference electrode (half-cell).
 This enables potential contour maps to be plotted. The electrode potential of steel in
concrete indicates the probability of corrosion.
Main applications
 The half-cell provides a relatively quick method of assessing reinforcement corrosion
over a wide area without the need for wholesale removal of the concrete cover.
 Quantitative measurements are made so that a structure can be monitored over a
period of time and any deterioration can be noted.
Advantages
 It is portable equipment. Field measurements can be readily made and results can be
plotted in the form of equipotential contour diagram, which can indicate likely areas of
corrosion. It appears to give reliable information.
Limitations
 The main limitation is that it does not provide information on rate of corrosion.
 It also requires access to reinforcing bars to make electrical contact.
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 2. HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD

ASTM C876 - 91 gives a Standard Test Method for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated RC in Concrete.
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 3. Schmidt Rebound Hammer Test

Fundamental principle
 It consists essentially of a metal plunger, one end of which is held against the concrete
surface while the free end is struck by a spring- loaded mass which rebounds to a
point on a graduated scale. The point is indicated by an index rider.
 The amount of rebound increases with increase in concrete strength for a particular
concrete mix.
Main applications
 It measures the surface hardness of concrete and provides an estimation of surface
compressive strength, uniformity and quality of concrete.
Advantages
 It gives accurate assessment of the strength of the surface layer of material. The entire
structure can be tested in its 'as-built' condition.
Limitations
 It can be very costly and time consuming as instrumentation is required to measure
response. It requires careful planning and can damage structure.
 The member must be isolated from the rest of the structure prior to the test.
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3. Schmidt Rebound Hammer Test

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 4. CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

Fundamental principle
 Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in the
presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce carbonates,
e.g. calcium carbonate.
 The carbonation process is also called depassivation.
 Thus, if the entire concrete cover over the reinforcing steel is carbonated, corrosion of
the steel would occur if moisture and oxygen could reach the steel.

EQUIPMENT FOR CARBONATION DEPTH

MEASUREMENT TEST
 If there is a need to physically measure the extent
of carbonation it can be determined easily by
spraying a freshly exposed surface of the
concrete with a 1% phenolphthalein solution.
 The calcium hydroxide is coloured pink while
the carbonated portion is uncoloured.
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 4. CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

RANGE AND LIMITATIONS OF CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

• The phenolphthalein test is a simple and cheap method of determining the depth of
carbonation in concrete and provides information on the risk of reinforcement corrosion
taking place.
• The only limitation is the minor amount of damage done to the concrete surface by drilling
or coring.
• The time required for carbonation can be estimated knowing the concrete grade and using
the following equation:

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 5. PERMEABILITY TEST

Fundamental principle
 Permeability of concrete is important when dealing with durability of concrete
particularly in concrete used for water retaining structures or watertight sub-structures.
 Structures exposed to harsh environmental conditions also require low porosity as well
as permeability. Such adverse elements can result in degradation of reinforced concrete,
for example, corrosion of steel leading to an increase in the volume of the steel, cracking
and eventual spalling of the concrete.
 It tests measure the ease with which liquids, ions and gases can penetrate into the
concrete.
Equipment for permeability test
1. Initial surface absorption test
 Details is given in BS 1881:Part 5 which measures the surface water absorption. In this
method, a cup with a minimum surface area of 5000 mm2 is sealed to the concrete
surface and filled with water.
 The rate at which water is absorbed into the concrete under a pressure head of 200 mm is
measured by movement along a capillary tube attached to the cup.
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 5. PERMEABILITY TEST

2. Modified Figg permeability test

 The modified Figg permeability test can be used to determine the air or water
permeability of the surface layer of the concrete. In both the air and water
permeability test a hole of 10 mm diameter is drilled 40 mm deep normal to the
concrete surface.
 A plug is inserted into this hole to form an airtight cavity in the concrete. In the air
permeability test, the pressure in the cavity is reduced to –55 kPa using a hand
operated vacuum pump and the pump is isolated.
 Water permeability is measured at a head of 100 mm with a very fine canula passing
through a hypodermic needle to touch the base of the cavity.
3. In situ rapid chloride ion permeability test
• This method was originally designed for laboratory application but has been
modified for in situ use. The procedure for the laboratory test is given in AASHTO
T277 and ASTM C1202.

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 5. PERMEABILITY TEST

Applications of permeability test

• Various permeation mechanisms exist depending on the permeation medium, which
include absorption and capillary effects, pressure differential permeability and ionic and
gas diffusion.
• Most of these methods measure the permeability or porosity of the surface layer of
concrete and not the intrinsic permeability of the core of the concrete. The covercrete has
been known to significantly affect the concrete durability since deterioration such as
carbonation and leaching starts from the concrete surface.
• This layer thus provides the first defense against any degradation.

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 7. RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT

Fundamental Principle
 The resistivity of concrete is related to its moisture content and to a lesser degree to
chloride content.
 Resistivity measurement gives an indication of the rate of corrosion, which may occur if
oxygen-moisture or chloride- oxygen-moisture is present at the reinforcement.
 Resistivity is measured by inserting electrodes into small holes on the surface and passing
an alternating current through them. The difference in potential is then measured.
Main applications
• It is used for measuring the ability of the concrete to conduct the corrosion current. The
higher the resistance the slower the corrosion process can proceed. The device can also be
used to measure moisture contents and to map moisture migration patterns.
Advantages
• The equipment is inexpensive, simple to operate and many measurements can be rapidly
made. It is very useful when used in conjunction with other methods of testing, e.g. half-cell
Limitations
• It is not reliable at high moisture contents. It needs calibration and precise results are not
usually obtained. The electrodes require good contact and nearby bars can affect readings.
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7. RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT

• The equipment consists of four electrodes

(two outer current probes and two inner
voltage probes) which are placed in a
straight line on or just below the concrete
surface at equal spacings.

• A low frequency alternating electrical

current is passed between the two outer
electrodes whilst the voltage drop between
the inner electrodes is measured. The
apparent resistivity (ρ) in “ohm-cm” may
be expressed as:

• ρ = 2πaV/I where: V is voltage drop, I is

applied current, a is electrode spacing. 48
 8. ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS OF TESTING CONCRETE (Covermeter)

Fundamental Principle
 The basic principle is that the presence of steel affects magnetic field.
 An electromagnetic search probe is swept over the surface of the concrete under test.
 The presence of reinforcement within the range of the instrument is shown by movement of
the indicator needle.
 When the probe is moved until the deflection of the needle is at a maximum, the bar in
question is then parallel to the alignment of the probe and directly beneath it. The needle
indicates the cover on the appropriate scale for the diameter of the reinforcing bar.
Main applications
.  It is used for determining the presence,
location and depth of rebars in concrete and
masonry components.
 Advanced versions of covermeter can also
indicate bar diameter when cover is known.
It is moderately easy to operate. However,
some training or experience is required to
interpret the results.
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 4.2. BUILDING STRUCTURE MAINTENANCE
1. INTRODUCTION
3 Basic symptoms of distress in a concrete structure
• Cracking,
• Spalling and
• Disintegration
• Reasons for their development may be poor materials, poor design, poor
construction practice, poor supervision or a combination,
• repair of cracks usually does not involve strengthening
• repair of a structure showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to find that there
have been substantial losses of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the
reinforcement

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2. Repairing cracks
2.1 Types of cracks
• active cracks and
• dormant cracks
 the proper differentiation between active and
dormant cracks is one of magnitude of movement,
and the telltales are a measure of the difference.
 If the magnitude of the movement, measured over a
reasonable period of time (say 6 months or 1 year), is
sufficient to displace or show significantly on the
telltales, we can treat the crack as an active one.
 If the movements are smaller, the crack may be
considered as dormant.

51
 Methods of repairing cracks
1. Bonding with epoxies
• Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding compounds
under pressure
• Usual practice is to
 drill into the crack from the face of the concrete at several locations
 inject water or a solvent to flush out the defect
 allow the surface to dry
 surface-seal the cracks between the injection points
 inject the epoxy until it flows out
 Usually the epoxy is injected through holes of about ¾ inch in
diameter and ¾ inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centers
 Smaller spacing is used for finer cracks
• The limitation of this method is that unless the crack is dormant
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 Methods of repairing cracks
2. Routing and sealing
 This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and filling and
sealing it with a suitable material
 The routing operation
 placing the sealant
- This is a method where thorough water tightness of the joint is not required
and where appearance is not important

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 Methods of repairing cracks
3. Stitching
 Concrete can be stitched by iron or
steel dogs
 A series of stitches of different
lengths should be used
 bend bars into the shape of a broad
flat bottomed letter U between 1 foot
and 3 feet long and with ends about 6
inches long
 The stitching should be on the side,
which is opening up first

54
 Methods of repairing cracks
4. External stressing
 cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive
force, sufficient to overcome the tension and to
provide a residual compression
 The principle is very similar to stitching, except that
the stitches are tensioned; rather than plain bar dogs
which apply no closing force to the crack
 Some form of abutment is needed for providing an
anchorage for the prestressing wires or rods

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 Methods of repairing cracks
5. Grouting
 same manner as the injection of an epoxy
 cleaning the concrete along the crack
 installing built-up seats at intervals along the crack
 sealing the crack between the seats with a cement paint or
grout
 flushing the crack to clean it and test the seal; and then
grouting the whole

56
 Methods of repairing cracks
7. Use of overlays
 Sealing of an active crack by use of an overlay requires that the
overlay be extensible and not flexible alone
 Accordingly, an overlay which is flexible but not extensible, ie. can
be bent but cannot be stretched, will not seal a crack that is active
 Gravel is typically used for roofs
 concrete or brick are used where fill is to be placed against the
overlay
 An asphalt block pavement also works well where the area is
subjected to heavy traffic

59
 3. Repairing Spalling and disintegration

 In the repair of a structure showing spalling and disintegration, it is

usual to find that there have been substantial losses of section and/or
pronounced corrosion of the reinforcement
 Both are matters of concern from a structural viewpoint, and repair
generally involves some urgency and some requirement for
restoration of lost strength

60
 3. Repairing Spalling and disintegration
1. Jacketing
 primarily applicable to the repair of deteriorated columns, piers and piles
 Jacketing consists of restoring or increasing the section of an existing
member, principally a compression member, by encasement in new concrete
 The form for the jacket should be provided with spacers to assure clearance
between it and the existing concrete surface
 The form may be temporary or permanent and may consist of timber,
wrought iron, precast concrete or gauge metal, depending on the purpose
and exposure
 Timber, Wrought iron Gauge metal and other temporary forms can be used
under certain conditions
 Filling up the forms can be done by pumping the grout, by using prepacked
concrete, by using a tremie, or, for subaqueous works, by dewatering the
form and placing the concrete in the dry
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 3. Repairing spalling and disintegration
1. Jacketing
 The use of a grout having a cement-sand ratio by volume, between 1:2
and 1:3 , is recommended

 The richer grout is preferred for thinner sections and the thinner
mixture for heavier sections

 The forms should be filled to overflowing, the grout allowed to settle

for about 20 minutes, and the forms refilled to overflowing

 The outside of the forms should be vibrated during placing of the

grout

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 3. Repairing spalling and disintegration
2.. Guniting
 Gunite is also known as shotcrete or pneumatically applied mortar
 It can be used on vertical and overhead, as well as on horizontal
surfaces and is particularly useful for restoring surfaces spalled due to
corrosion of reinforcement
 Gunite is a mixture of Portland cement, sand and water, shot into the
place by compressed air
 Sand and cement are mixed dry in a mixing chamber, and the dry
mixture is then transferred by air pressure along a pipe or hose to a
nozzle, where it is forcibly projected on to the surface to be coated
 Water is added to the mixture by passing it through a spray injected at
the nozzle

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 3. Repairing spalling and disintegration
3.. Prepacked concrete
 This method is particularly useful for carrying out the repair under
water and elsewhere where accessibility is a problem
 Prepacked concrete is made by filling forms with coarse aggregate and
then filling the voids of the aggregate by pumping in a sand-cement
grout
 Prepacked concrete is used for Prefacing of structures, jacketing,
filling of cavities in and under structures, and underpinning and
enlarging piers, abutments, retaining walls and footings

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 3. Repairing spalling and disintegration

4…Drypack

 Drypacking is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and the

subsequent tamping of the mortar into place, producing an intimate
contact between the new and existing works
 Because of the low water-cement ratio of the material, there is little
shrinkage, and the patch remains tight. The usual mortar mix is 1:2.5
to 1:3

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 3. Repairing spalling and disintegration

5… Replacement of concrete
 This method consists of replacing the defective concrete with new
concrete of conventional proportions, placed in a conventional
manner
 This method is a satisfactory and economical solution where the
repair occurs in depth (at least beyond the reinforcement), and where
the area to be repaired is accessible
 This method is particularly indicated where a water-tight construction
is required and where the deterioration extends completely through
the original concrete section

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 3. Repairing spalling and disintegration

6…..Overlays

 In addition to seal cracks, an overlay may also be used to restore a

spalled or disintegrated surface
 Overlays used include mortar, bituminous compounds, and epoxies
 They should be bonded to the existing concrete surface

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 Conclusions

 When repairing cracks, do not fill the crack with new concrete or
mortar
 A brittle overlay should not be used to seal an active crack
 Cracks should not be surface-sealed over corroded reinforcement,
without encasing the bars
 The methods adopted for repairing spalling and disintegration must
be capable of restoring the lost strength

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