Presentation on Planning, Data

collection, and report writing

Facilitated by Eyerusalem T.
 Planning
• Planning is the process of thinking about and
organizing the activities required to achieve a
desired goal.
• “Planning is decidingConti
in advance what is to be
done. It involves the selection of objective
objectives, policies procedures and programs
from alternatives”
M E Harley

• “Planning is a trap laid down to capture the

future” Allen
• “If you don’t have daily objectives, you
qualify as a dreamer.” Zig Ziglar.
• “If you don’t know where you are going, how
can you expect to get there?” Basil. S. Walsh
 Nature of Features or Characteristics of
planning
Planning is Goal oriented
- Plans are make in order to seek certain
predetermined goal.
Planning is a primary function
• Planning provides the basic foundation from
which all future management function arise.
Planning is a thinking process
• Involves imagination, foresight and sound
judgment.
Planning is flexible
• Planning should not be rigid.
Planning is all pervasive
• Planning is an on going activity at all levels of an
organizational hierarchy, right from CEO to first
line managers.
Planning is a contentious process
• Planning involves continuous assessment and
reassessment of the resources directions,
opportunities, and problems of the organization
while converting them to achieve goal.
Planning involve choice
• Planning always involves choice among various
alternatives.
• If there is only one way doing something, there is
no need for planning. Planning arises only when
there are alternatives available.
Planning is a Rational
• Planners should be objective and unemotional in
their approach to planning.
• Aim would be to achieve efficiency and
effectiveness while optimally deploying resources.
Planning is an integrated process
• Plans are structured in a logical way such that
every lower level plan serves as a means to
accomplish higher level plans.
• Plans are inter-related, interdependent and
mutually supported.
Planning is futuristic
• Planning attempts to peep into the future,
analyses it and prepare for it.
 Importance and purpose of planning
Planning provide direction
• Planning provides clear sense of direction and
purpose of activities of an organization.
Planning minimizes risk and uncertainty
• In fast changing organizations, planning based on
hard facts and data help managers to reduce risk
and uncertainties.
Planning ensures co-ordination
• Planning helps to established co-ordination efforts
from various divisions, department and people.
 Steps in planning
Step 1. To establish Objectives which are verifiable
Step 2. To establish planning premises
Step 3. To determine alternative course of action
Step 4. To evaluate the alternatives and select the best
Step 5. To formulate derivative plans
Step 6. to secure co-operation and participation of all
employees
Step 7. To measure and control the progress through
follow-up
 Steps in planning
Step 1 To establish objectives which are
verifiable
• Identify goal of the organization
• Internal (financial position of company, human
resource available, manufacturing facility,
company image, etc.) and external
environment (government rules and
regulations, socio-economic condition of the
society, competition level, supplier reliability)
of the organization has to be studied.
Step 2: To establish planning premises
• Planning premises are assumption of future
market condition which become the basis for
current planning process.
• Paining premises usually relate to cost and
availability of row materials, labor, power,
product demands, population trends
technology growth, government policies etc.
Step 3. To determine alternative course of action
• Search and list all possible alternatives in
order to compared and analytically evaluated.
 Step 4. To evaluate alternative and select
the best
• Select most suitable and best course of action
• Alternatives have to be compared and evaluated
with respect of their expected contribution to
organizational goals.
• Evaluation and selection is often done with the help
of quantitative techniques and operations research.
Step 5. To formulate derivative plans
• Management has to formulate derivative plans or
secondary plans to support the basic pln.
• Derivative plans are sub plans or departmental
plan
• For example if the production plan of TATA MOTORS is
to produce a million of Nano’s in the next five years.
The derivative plans would be plans for various
departments like fabrication, forging, casting purchase,
assembly etc.
Step 6. To secure co-operation and participation of all
employees.
• Involving employees in planning process enhances
their co-operation and participation.
• Continuous suggestions, complaints and criticism must
be solicited from the employees.
Step 7 To measure and control the progress
through follow-up
• Continuous evaluation of plans help in identifying recurring mistakes and
avoiding them in future.
Planning premises
 Planning premises are assumption of future market conditions which become
the basis for current planning process.
 Planning premises have to be established even before planning.
 To establish planning premises to forecast future business conditions under
which a plan has to be operate.
 Planning premises providing bedrock upon which the plans are based
Classified of planning
1. Internal and external premises
2. Tangible and intangible premises
3. Controllable, semi-controllable and uncontrollable premises.
 Internal Premises
• Internal premises are those factors which exist
within organization and are generally under the
control of management.
• Internal premises include- men money, machinery,
materials and methods.
External Premises
• External premises those factors which exist outside
the purview of the organization and are generally
not under the control of the management.
 Tangible and intangible premises
Tangible premises
• Tangible premises are those which are quantifiable in
nature.
• For example, production quality, quality standards, capital …
• These info is needed for planning and are quantifiable and
measurable in nature.
Intangible premises
• Intangible premises are those which are abstract and non
quantifiable in nature.
• For example, company image, brand loyalty, political
situation etc, are needed for planning but are qualitative in
character.
 Controllable premises
• Controllable premises are those factors which are
said to be completely under the control of
management.
• For example, managerial policies rules and
regulations etc.
Semi-controllable premises
• Controllable premises are those which management
has partial control.
• For example worker attitude and efficiency, firms
pricing policy, firms marketing program, row
materials etc.
 Uncontrollable premises
• Internal premises are those factors over which
management has absolutely no control.
Type of planning
Strategic Planning Long term
Tactical planning Short term
Operational Planning Day to Day
Strategic Tactical
Planning Planning
Long range Plans Intermediate range plans
Time frame 3 or more years Time frame: 2-3 Years
Responsibility of top Responsibility of Middle
Management management
Concerned with objectives, Concerned with
policies, programmes procedures, projects and
strategies
Responsible for overall Responsible for integrating
progress of the company the work of various
department of the
organization
Focus on planning Focus on co-ordination
forecasting
Operational
Paining
Short term Plans
Time Frame: one Year
Responsibility of lower
level management
Concerned with schedules
and methods
Responsible for covering
day to day operation and
implementing internal goal
Focus on directing and
controlling
 Hierarchy of Plan
Organizational Goal

Strategic Goals Strategic Plan

Tactical Goals Tactical Plans

Operational Goals Operational Plans

Data Collection, Analysis
and Report Writing
Conceptual Frame
of
Scientific Research
Research is About Answering the 6-Wh Questions
out Answering the 6-Wh Questions
 This indicates that, we are always concerned to understand our environment
through:
Experience
Reasoning
Research [both experience & reasoning]
•A. Experience
Personal experience
Experience of others in the immediate circle
Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources
•B. Research
Systematic and original investigation
Empirical and controlled examination
Self-correcting
Both experience & reasoning oriented etc.
 C Logical Resonining
• Deduction: Goes from general (theories) to specific
(facts)
Premise * Honest people do not steal
Premise * John is honest
Conclusion: John does not steal
• Induction: Goes from facts to generalizations (theories)
Facts: Abebe, Ayele, Almaz and Aweke died.
Facts: Abebe, Ayele, Almaz are hman-beings
Generalization: Human-beings are mortal
–NB: If the premises are true, the conclusion is correct
Deductive and Inductive reasoning
Inductive Reasoning (Qualitative) • Deductive
 Works from specific to general
Reasoning(Quantitative)
 Sometimes informally called
“bottom-up” approach  Works from more general
 Involves a degree of uncertainty to the more specific
 Sometimes informally
called a “top-down”
approach
 Conclusion follows
logically from premises
(available facts)
 In De
• THEORY THEORY

HYPOTESIS
HYPOTESIS

OBSERVATION
OBSERVATION

CONFIRMATION CONFIRMATION
 Scientific research
 Scientific Research is a serious inquiry or
examination; an investigation or experimentation
aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts, or practical application of such new or
revised theories or laws.

 Scientific Research focusing on solving problems and

pursues a step by step logical, organized and rigorous
method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze
them and draw valid conclusions there from.
 Research methodology
 Advanced Research Methodology is therefore, a systematic
way of solving the research problem through a designed
conceptual structure within which research is conducted.
The design is a blue print and an outline of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis/questions to
its operational implication and the final analysis of data.
 Advanced Research Methodology is therefore, a systematic
way of solving the research problem through a designed
conceptual structure within which research is conducted.
The design is a blue print and an outline of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis/questions to
its operational implication and the final analysis of data.
 A successful scientific research requires:
Creativity and Open mind
Curiosity and Patience
Persistence and Positive Attitude
Discipline and focus

 Scientific research therefore relies on application of:

Scientific method
Harnessing of curiosity
Providing scientific information and theories
Making practical applications possible
 Objectives of Research
The objectives of research work are to:
Gain familiarity with phenomenon/achieve new
insights into it
Describe characteristics of individual, situation or
group
Determine frequency its associated with something
else
Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables
Predict the future effects of phenomenon or action
etc.
 Criteria of Good Research
 Good research is:

• Systematic:
• Structured, follows specified steps; based on well defined set of rules.
Creative but no guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
• Logical:
– Is guided by the rules of logical reasoning - induction and deduction.
• Empirical:
– Related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals
with concrete data to ensure external validity of research results.
• Replicable:
– Can be verified by replicating the study. A study should produce the
same results if repeated exactly.
 Therefore a good research helps to:
Building knowledge and facilitating learning
Understand issues and increase public
awareness
Succeed in business, disprove lies and
support truths
Find, gauge and seize opportunities
Promotes love and confidence (read, write,
analyze, & share valuable info)

Provides nourishment and exercise for the

mind etc.
 Research Design
• What is Research Design?

 Research Design is a conceptual framework

within which research is carried-out and is a
blueprint and outline of what the researcher
will do from developing the
hypothesis/questions to analyze the data.
 Types of Research Design
• Exploratory Design

Explore an issue or a topic to identify a problem

Clarify the nature of the problem/define the issue involved
Develop propositions (hypothesis)
To gain new insights/understanding: when little is known about the issue

 Characterstics of Exploratory Design

Flexible research design

More of qualitative rather than quantitative
Carried out in small-scale, not in large-scale
Provides answers to: “what”, “how”, “why”
Hypothesis development rather than testing
 Descriptive/Diagnostic Design
 It is important to:

Describe the characteristics of a particular individual or group

Determine the frequency with which something occurs
Determine the association of some phenomenon or variable

 Characterstics of Descriptive Design

Carried out in large-scale/surveys

Provides answers to questions: who, where, how often & how much
Concerned with hypothesis testing than hypothesis development
Rigid and not flexible research design
Fact-finding, describing the state of affairs as it exists
Researcher has no control over variables, can only report what
happened or what is happening
 Types of descriptive Design
• I. Longitudinal: studying different units (e.g. households)
over time (e.g. over several years). This study could be based
on:

• True panel: Measuring repeatedly over time with respect to the

same variables

• Omnibus panel: Measuring repeatedly over time with respect to the

different variables

• II. Cross sectional: studying different units (e.g.households,

subcities, regions, etc) at a given point in time.
 Explanatory/Causal Design
 Helps to develop causal explanations about variables or
factors and address the ‘why’ questions.
Why do people chose brand A than B?
Why some customers satisfied and not others?
Why some celebrities and others use drags?
 Characterstics of Explanatory Design

Hypotheses testing of causal relationships b/n variables

Draw inferences about causality
Focuse on hypothesis testing rather than hypothesis
development
Sample must be representative to generalize about the
population
 Historical Design
 Historical design is the process of critical inquiry into past
events in order to produce an accurate description and
interpretation of events. It enables to explore and explain:
The meanings of past phenomenon/process
The phases of past phenomenon/process
The characteristics of past phenomenon/process
Report past events and/or conditions
Attempt is made to establish facts
Help to learn about the past and predict future events
 Historians should consequently aspire to get to the original
events that took place and therefore the researcher is dependent
on the availability of documentary sources.
• Quantitative Design
Applied to phenomenon that can be expressed quantitatively
Involves the generation of data in quantitative form
Subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis

• Qualitative Design
Applied to describe quality of underlying motives of behaviour
Concerned with subjective assessment: attitudes, opinions etc.
Involves the researcher’s insights and impressions (judgements)
Result is either in non-quantitative form or in forms that are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
 QuaNtitative vs. QuaLitative

• Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative Qualitative
 Distinction between the Two Designs
Concepts Quantitative Qualitative
Types of Reasoning Deduction Induction
Objectivity Subjectivity
Causation Meaning
Relationship
Questions Pre-specified Open ended
Outcome Oriented Process oriented

Types of Analysis Numerical estimation Narrative description

Statistical inference Constant comparison

 Researches based on their Mode of Data
Collection can be classified as:
A. Continuous (Longitudinal)

• Uses time series or panel data

• Time series: (GDP of Ethiopia in 1980, 1981, 1982,....,

2015)

• Panel Data: (GDP of each of the Sub-Saharan Africa

Countries in 1980, 1981, 1982, ...., 2015)

• B. Ad hoc (one time) Research

• Uses cross-sectional data: (Tax revenue of the regional

governments and city administrations of Ethiopia in 2015).
 Data
Collection
 Sources of Data

Primary Data Secondary Data

Methods/Tools of Collecting Primary Data
Observation method
Interview Method
• Personal interview
• Telephone interview

Focus Group Discussion

Questionnaire Method
 Research report writing
• Researchers often spend too much time designing projects,
developing questionnaires, collecting and analyzing data.
– But, these tasks are only some parts of the research
process.

• Hard work and excellence alone do not guarantee that

research will have impact -NOT ENOUGH TO DO GOOD
RESEARCH.

 Even the most brilliant hypothesis, well designed and

conducted research study, and the most striking findings
are of little value unless they are communicated to others.
 The process of writing
• There are several considerations to keep in mind when preparing a
report:

• The Audience: Who is going to read the report?

• When writing the research report it would be important to consider:

• What is the purpose of the report?
• Who will read the report?
• How will the report be used? etc.
• The Story: When you write your report, you should attempt to tell the
"story" to your reader.

– A good "storyline" can help make an otherwise very dull report

interesting to the reader.

 And, writing is not about ‘getting it right the first time’.

 Rather, writing is a process- it takes time and effort and can be improved
with practice and better planning.
 Cont

• The writing process begins bydrafting your

ideas.
• Rewriting: evaluate and polish the report by
improving coherence, proofreading for
mechanical errors, checking citations, and
reviewing voices and tenses.
– Revising – is the process of inserting new ideas, adding
supportive evidences, deleting or changing old ideas, etc.

– Editing – is the process of cleaning up -spelling, grammar

usage, verb tense, sentence length and paragraph
organization.
• Finally Presentation
•Thank
you!