Globalisation

Definition, Characteristics, Major Discourses

Definitions
• a broadening, deepening and speeding up of world-wide interconnectedness in all
aspects of life, from the cultural to the criminal, the financial to the environmental
known as globalization.
• globalization means the partial erasure of the distinctions separating nation currency
areas and national systems of financial regulation (Strange, 1995)
• Globalization refers to the multiplicity of linkages and interconnections between the
states and societies. It describes the process by which events, decisions, and activities
in one part of the world can come to have significant consequences for individuals
and communities in quite distant parts of the globe (McGrew 1992)
• A social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural
arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are
receding (Waters, 1995)
• globalization means different things to different people. Some consider it a
predominantly economics-based phenomenon while others suggest that it is a
worldwide system of hegemony.
Meaning/ Definition
• no accepted definition of globalization
• James Beckford (2003: 119) define some of its main contours:
(1) interrelatedness of cultures, commodities, information, and peoples across both time
and space;
(2) stretching of social relations and activities across regions leading to distant
occurrences and developments can have serious domestic impacts while local events
can have significant global implications.
(3) the increasing capacity of information technologies leading to entire world becoming
more interconnected as the result of the propagation of media technologies throughout
the world.
(4) the emergence of institutions and social movements to promote, regulate, oversee or
reject globalization; and
(5) the emergence of new types of global consciousness or ideologies of globalism that give
some expression to this social interconnectedness such as cosmopolitanism.
Evolution of the concept
• several differing arguments regarding the nature of the phenomenon
• Many argue that it is not a new phenomenon, but is merely the continuation of a
process that has been ongoing for centuries.
• Say this based on the fact that in the work of many nineteenth- and early
twentieth-century intellectuals, including sociologists such as Saint-Simon to
students of geopolitics such as MacKinder, recognized how modernity was
integrating the world.
• The term globalization has been in use since the early 1960s.
• Because during this time, inadequacies was recognised of traditional approaches
to thinking about politics, economics, and culture which presumed a distinct
separation between internal and external affairs, the domestic and international
arenas, and the local and the global.
• The debate over the increasing interconnectedness of human affairs despite state
borders was intensifying.
Contd…
• Following the collapse of state socialism and the consolidation of
capitalism worldwide, academic and public discussion of globalization
intensified.
• world was becoming a shared social and economic space soon
dominated public discourse also because of the rapid spread of
information brought about by technological advances
• The term began appearing regularly in the mainstream press in the
late 1980s, beginning primarily as a reference for the expanding free
market but more recently including more political and cultural
references .
Globalisation : characteristics
• It is most usefully employed as a descriptive rather than a prescriptive term. As
it focusses on describing how things are as opposed to how things should be in
the international stage.
• merely reflects a set of social, political, economic and technological forces that
have recently become distinctly pronounced.
• The term in its usage is perhaps relatively new whereas the phenomenon it is
talking about- we cannot ascertain if that is new.
• Power and authority not concentrated in hands of nation states. In the
"globalising" international affairs, nation-states are no longer exclusive actors as
in the past but besides there are other actors too which, among others NGOs,
environmental movements, transnational corporations, ethnic nationalities and
multi-state regional organisations.
Contd…
• Globalisation has made interaction and influence more complex due
to increase in number of actors.
• Global media networks, the products of transnational corporations
and the large migration of people from one part of the world to the
other have greatly influenced and to some degree led to blending of
the social and cultural environment of people across the world.
• Globalization initiates growth and interconnectivity of various sectors
across nations leading to interdependency between nations.
• facilitates global business expansion such as free trade environment,
lower tariffs and taxes on international business operations.
Approaches to study of globalization or major
discourses on globalisation
• The proposition that globalisation has narrowed down the distinction
and dividing line between the two spheres i.e., the international and
national. This perception is welcomed by some and is rejected by
others.

• the hyperglobalists,
• the skeptics, and
• the transformationalists
The hyperglobalists (Held, 1999)
• Describe globalization as a fundamental and dramatic political, social and economic
development
• Argue that a cosmopolitan democratic community is in the making at the global level due
to growing inter relations among nation states.
• Argue globalization came up because of failure of nation states to handle issues of world
peace, human rights and poverty. These issues are being addressed effectively by
international institutions.
• Also gives example of enviromental degradation by the nation-states and cite examples of
international institutions in curtailing the same.
• Point is for globalisation came up as a result of failure of nation state.
• Also calls for establishment of "world government" that may rely on national
govemnlents to administer policies but at the same time would hold authority over the
states.
• the globalization processes definitely erode the power of the state
• nationality and geographical borders no longer have any significance.
• economy is strongly emphasized by the hyperglobalists,
• Argue that globalization is causing a denationalization of economies through various
types of international exchange such as capital mobility, multinational corporations
and economic interdependency
• hyperglobalists emphasize the importance of capitalism and technology as driving
forces of spread of market liberalism
• reduced political restrictions on the movement of money and technological change
in the form of the computerisation of financial transactions, large amounts of
money can be moved almost instantaneously with little to constrain it within
national boundaries.
The Sceptics
• Paul Hirst, professor at the University of London, who disagrees with the hyperglobalists on
most accounts, represents this view of globalization.
• Places cultural, economic, political, social and technological developments on an evolutionary
time-line, the sceptics argue that globalisation has existed for centuries and that the sum of
recent developments only changes the scale and scope of globalization and not the intrinsic
characteristics of the phenomenon itself.
• Stress on importance of state saying the national identities have a history and a hold on popular
imagination that global identities cannot replace.
• Talks about reemergence of nationalism in small states as a response to overpowering
tendencies of big states.
• Argue that capital mobility has not caused a shift in state power as this economic emphasis that
is being made is largely restricted between the triad countries of the US, the EU and Japan.
• They argue that international transfer is largely restricted to respective region.
• Argue that development and exchange is taking place within the regional blocs.
Skeptics warn against globalization on three
points:
1. Compromise of National Economic Interest
• economic globalisation has led to interdependence between domestic
economies
• greater degree of dependence of these economies on investment
from transnational corporations
• Capital movement across countries makes domestic economies
insecure because they have to constantly liberalise and make changes
in order to attract and preserve capital and investment.
• This may even compromise interest of national community.
2. Curtailment of National Sovereignty
• globalisation threat to nation-state sovereignty relates to the
increasing pressure on national governments to implement
international treaties and conventions that satisfies international
community.
• international treaties may impinge on the domestic jurisdiction of
nation-states
• May impose domestic political, economic and environmental
obligations upon nation-states which may or may not be in tune with
domestic interest.
3. Erosion of National Identity
• Cultural globalization leads to erosion of national identity.
• increased mobilisation of populations across the world and advances
in the global communication networks led to either homogenization
or blending of cultures.
• As a result, these countries that once possessed clear standards and
accepted cultural practices and beliefs are now forced to accomodate
ever-increasing numbers of people with diverse cultural beliefs and
practices.
• Also has led to xenophobia and racial violence in domestic sphere.
The transformationalists
• appear as a reasonable middle ground as compared to the other two
categories i.e. situated somewhere in between the hyperglobalist and the
sceptical definitions
• shows a realistic approach to globalization as it does not try to oppose the
existence of globalisation, but rather tries to face the dilemmas it poses.
• typically claim that we are in the middle of a process that has as yet no
precise tendencies but will eventually have strong bearings on state power
and governance.
• reshaping and reconstituting modern societies and the world order.
• The nation-state still has an important role.
Contd…
• Argue that globalization has both benefits and disadvantages.
• On the one hand it promotes economic, cultural and political integration,
and on the other hand it causes stratification distancing ‘First World’
from ‘Third World.’
• Some nations, states and communities get full advantage by being part of
the global world, whereas others become more and more disadvantaged.
• this is because developing nations or economically weak nations depend
on external aid and this creates the ground for domestic policy being
dictated by external forces(nations that provide aid or international
institutions : world bank, imf) without taking into account compatibility
with local context.
Feminist discourse on law
• legal theory historically has dealt with matters of public life, keeping the private at
bay.
• Law central tool in institutionalizing male hegemony
• Feminist scholars argue that this is because the law itself is male and is used as a
mechanism to subordinate the female.
• Law is based on ideals of neutrality, objectivity and rationality, which men claim
them to be as opposed to being personalised, subjective and irrational, which
men claim women to be.
• For example , for a substantial time violence within the sphere of marriage and
family is categorised as not requiring intervention by the state while prosecuting
violence outside marriage and family is seen as essential to maintain order in the
country.
• They also argue that when adjustments were made in legal doctrines
to recognise varied forms of violence against women.
• distinction is still drawn from male lens such as between rape and
consensual sex, or sexual harassment and flirting, or domestic
violence or domestic squabble in law are not drawn from the point of
view of women and does not reflect women’s experience.
Feminist dissatisfaction with IR
• feminist approaches to globalization first needs to be understood with the discontent that
they have against IR.
• Early feminist analyses focused on issues that were widely believed to be of particular
importance to women around the world, such as domestic violence, workplace
discrimination, and human rights violations against women: these issues seen as domestic
issues not concerning world community
• Some feminist felt that this approach is too narrow and worked to worked to see these
issues as global issue.
• war, global governance, migration, southern debt, the “resource curse,” and climate
change which seem gender neutral has gendered dimension.
• Also women of all nationalities tend to suffer more from the poverty, overwork,
deprivation, and political marginalization.
• Believe globalization causes disparities between nations.
Feminist on international sphere
• international legal order as divided into global ‘public’ domain and state ‘private’ domain
• Individual state’s had natural sovereignty over their domestic/private affairs while
international organisations could only interfere if a state’s conduct had broader implications
for the international community.
• Issues of women, unless they were related to their political or economic rights, belonged in
the private realm of the state.
• only violence by one state on the other state was practically considered pertinent for global
dialogue and emergency meetings of U.N.
• distinction between ‘public’ matters which are up for international condemnation,
coordination and action like armed conflict, warfare, genocide, child rights an racial
discrimination and ‘private’ issues which are excluded from efforts of international
condemnation, coordination and action like physical and psychological abuse, discrimination
and everyday gendered harassment against women. These are considered as matters outside
the realm of international law.
Three types of critique of globalization in
feminist discourse
• Post colonial feminism
• Ethics of care
• Transnational feminism
Post colonial feminism
• Has a non-Eurocentric stand-point
• analyze globalization within the context of the history of Western
colonialism and imperialism
• claim that Western colonialism and imperialism have played important
roles in shaping the contemporary world
• Globalisation has created North-South power asymmetries
• Globalisation (migration and exchange of information) has led to
expansion of homogenising lens of western feminism.
• That describes status of women as emancipated or oppressed based on
western standards.
Contd…
• Third world women should be understood in context of their traditions and
norms.
• For example, muslim women’s adherence to veil should also be seen as a
move against male intrusion.
• Argue that attempt to explain third world women in simplistic terms of
oppressed or disadvantaged is reproducing ideological colonialism.
• Chandra Mohanty and Uma Narayan argue that criticising cultural practices
like sati or dominance of male in family ignores that in Indian culture they
are a result of western normativity.
• For example Britishers abolished devdasi system or matriarchal lineage that
existed in pre colonial era.
Globalisation is a form of neo colonialism:
sally scholz (2010)
• Whereas traditional forms of colonialism entailed the colonizer
assuming the privilege of ruling the colony, this neocolonialism rules
indirectly through the power it creates and enjoys by bringing
manufacturing jobs to an area or providing consumer goods to a
people – often Western inspired consumer goods as well.
• Old style colonialism often killed or displaced indigenous peoples; the
new style of colonialism impoverishes a culture by swamping society
with Western values, products or ideals.
Contd…
• Postcolonial feminists observe that many of the conditions created by colonialism
—economic inequality and exploitation, racism, cultural marginalization, and the
domination of the global South by the global North has continued.
• Market, capitalism and liberalization of economy and international economic
institutions favor countries in the global North to the detriment of southern nations.
• International trade policies serve Western interests even while claiming to be
politically neutral and fair. Global economic institutions also privilege Western
culture and political norms, presenting them as models for the rest of the world,
while ignoring and marginalizing the claims of women’s and indigenous
movements in the global South.
• Tries to develop normative positions on various issues by propagating the concept
of universal.
Ethics of Care critique of globalisation
• mainstream analyses of globalization either ignore or devalue care
• Criticise globalisation saying that it is based on fundamental
assumption of self in international sphere
• which posits individuals as independent, and self interested
• Human relationships are based on choice and not necessity or
dependency
• These assumptions has led to neoliberalism to prioritize economic
growth, efficiency, and profit making over other values, such as
equality, human rights, and care.
Ethics of care assumptions
• human beings are fundamentally relational and interdependent
• Individuals are defined by their caring relationships
• All persons experience long periods during which their lives literally depend
on the care of others, and everyone needs some degree of care in order
flourish.
• Therefore, global leaders should not be preoccupied with foucssing on
economic aspect of globalization rather global political leaders should
develop social and economic policies that aim to meet human needs and
reduce suffering rather than to expand markets and increase economic
competition
• foster a global economy that is capable of meeting universal human
needs
Transnational feminism
• Looks at globalisations in a positive sense
• Says globalization has opened up borders, led to migration and
interaction between citizens of various countries
• has created the conditions for feminist solidarity across national
borders
• globalization have created new political spaces that enable feminist
political resistance
Different from international feminism
• Transnational feminism is sometimes contrasted with global or international
feminism, a second-wave theory that emphasizes solidarity among women
across national boundaries based on their common experience of patriarchal
oppression. However, transnational feminism differs from global feminism.
• Global feminists argue that patriarchy is universal; women across the globe
have a common experience of gender oppression and therefore argue for
global sisterhood.
• Transnational feminist recognize that globalizing processes affect everyone,
they affect different women very differently, based on their geographical
and social locations. Recognise that some aspects of globalization may
benefit some (global north) and may burden others more (global south).
New Associated discourses: World-System
Theory
• Wallerstein’s main arguments about how this world-system emerged were outlined in a
three volume work, The Modem World-System (1974; 1980; 1989).
• origins of the modern world-system lie in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Europe,
where colonialism enabled countries like Britain, Holland and France to exploit the
resources of the countries they colonized
• global division of labour created a group of rich countries, but also impoverished many
others, thus preventing their development. This divided the world into regions based on
development
• World-systems theory focuses on the importance of the world as a unit,
rather than looking at individual countries. It divides the world in to three
regions: core countries, periphery countries, and semi-periphery countries.
• possible for individual countries to move 'up' into the core - as have some newly
industrialized societies - or to drop 'down' into the semi-periphery and periphery; the
structure of the modern world-system remains.
• Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production,
• and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive
production and extraction of raw materials.
• This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries.
• This theory sees globalization as a process that is same as spread and
development of capitalism over 500 years.
• crisis of feudalism created strong motivation to seek new markets and
resources; technology gave Europeans a solid base for carrying this
out.
• As per this discourse origin of globalization can be traced emergence
of a capitalist world system.
World Polity Theory
• John W. Meyer sees world as a social system theory called world polity
• This world polity encompasses and influences the actors, such as nations,
international organizations and individual states.
• provides a set of cultural norms or directions in which the actors of the world
society follow in dealing with problems and general procedures.
• The world polity contains no single actor or institution defining what is valuable for
the world as a whole. "Instead of a central actor, the culture of world society
allocates responsible and authoritative actor hood to nation-states.“
• world culture: a set of universally applicable models that define who are legitimate
actors in world society, what goals they can pursue and how they can pursue them.
• world polity models define sovereign states as key actors, enabling authorities to
construct collective goals and devise the means or programs to produce them, state
officials are not the only ones engaged in such authoritative creation of value