Computer Network

• A computer network is a set of devices connected to exchange data

and share resources with each other. These networked devices use a set
of rules, called communications protocols, to transmit information
over wired or wireless technologies.
 Advantages of computer network
• Resource sharing : A computer network allows sharing of hardware and software
resources among its users
• Provides security : A computer network provides security by allowing network
access to authorized users only
• Scalable: a computer Networks can be expanded easily and quickly to
accommodate growing numbers of users and devices
• Centralized data storage : A computer network stores data on a central node
(server) that can be accessed by all authorized user in an organization
• Reduced costs: A computer Networks reduce costs by sharing resources, reducing
hardware and software requirements, and simplifying management and
maintenance.
• Easy to Communicate : A computer Networks allows users to communicate using
different modes like text chatting , video conferencing ,emails etc
 Disadvantages of computer network

• Expensive : Setting up the network requires hardware like routers, hubs and switches
and cabling which increases network cost. The cost further varies based on the number
of systems to be added to the network.
• Lacks independence : Because everything is centralized, the network lacks
independence. As a result, individual users cannot use the computer as they wish.
• Virus and malware: computer network can lead to spreading of viruses to another
computer through the network

• Expert Assistance is Required: Networks must be monitored continuously to ensure

their performance and functionality. Therefore, if you want to maintain your computer
network, you need a team of experts.
• Security threat : In a computer network there is danger of hacking particulary in wide
area network
Comparison of LAN MAN and WAN
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Definition LAN stands for local area MAN stands for Metropolitan area WAN stands for wide area
network network network

Ownership LAN is mostly owned by MAN ownership can be private or WAN ownership can be
private organisation public private or public

Physical area covered Nework within a single Network covering an entire city Network spans a large
building or campus . Upto 100Km geographical area often a
Upto 10 Km country or continent
beyond 100Km
Bandwidth LOW MODERATE HIGH
Transmission media Coaxial Cable,wireless Coaxial Cable,PSTN,Optical PSTN or satellite link,optical
fibre,wireless fibre

Speed (data transfer) LAN speed is quiet high Man speed is moderate WAN speed is lower than
LAN
Comparison of LAN MAN and WAN
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Delay Network Propogation delay is Network Propogation delay is Network Propogation delay is
short in LAN Moderate in MAN Longer in WAN

Maintenance Designing and maintaining LAN Designing and maintaining Designing and maintaining WAN is
is easy and less costly than WAN MAN is complex and more complex and more costly than both
costly than LAN LAN and MAN

Congestion LAN has low congestion as MAN has higher congestion WAN has higher congestion than
compared to WAN than LAN both LAN and MAN

Installation cost Less Medium High

Fault tolerance Fault tolerance of LAN is higher Fault tolerance of MAN is lower Fault tolerance of WAN is lower
than WAN than LAN than both LAN and MAN

Used for College,school,hospital Small town ,city Country/continent

Topology
• What is Network Topology?
• Topology is the geometric representation of how all the networking
devices are interconnected to each other
• There are two types of topology:
• Physical topology
• logical topology.
 Selection criteria of topology
• Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an
infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc.
have to be considered when designing a network.
• Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow
reconfiguration of office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing
nodes.
• Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum
down time. Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not make the
entire network useless.
• Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. easy to expand
• Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware,
software and technical personnel requirements.
• Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be
easy.
• Physical topology : It defines the physical layout of a
network. It shows how various devices are connected to each
other in a network, either through cables or wireless
connections.

• Logical topology : The way in which computers and

networking devices transmit data
 Comparison of Logical and physical topology
Physical Topology
It defines the physical layout of network.
The layout can be modified based on needs.
It can be arranged in star, ring, mesh and bus
topologies.
This has major impact on cost, scalability and
bandwidth capacity of network based on
selection and availability of devices.
It is actual route concerned with transmission.
Physical connection of the network.
Logical Topology
It defines the way in which computers and
networking devices transmit data
There is no interference and manipulation
involved here.
It exists in bus and ring topologies.
This has major impact on speed and delivery of
data packets. It also handles flow control and
ordered delivery of data packets.
It is a high level representation of data flow.
Data path followed by the network.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology
• In Bus topology all the devices are connected to a common
communication channel or backbone cable.
• A terminator is added at the end the of the BUS to remove data from
the line
• Data is broadcasted to all the computers on the BUS but only the
destination device whose MAC address matches receives it
• The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
• If the backbone cable fails entire network becomes unusable
Advantages
• Easy to install and set up
• Less cabling is required
• Inexpensive and simple network
• Moderate data speeds

Disadvantages
• If the backbone cable fails entire network becomes unusable
• Performance degrades if more computers are added to the BUS
• Difficult to troubleshoot
• Security is very low.
Star Topology

• In Star topology every node is connected to

the central controller called hub or switch .
• Hub broadcasts the message to all the
computers in the network but only the
destination device whose MAC address
matches receives it
• The failure of central device (Hub/Switch)
makes the entire network unusable
 Advantages
• Installation is easy
• Addition and deletion of nodes is easy
• Fault identification and isolation is easy
• Easy to expand

Disadvantages
• Reqiures more cable than bus and ring
• If hub goes down entire network becomes unusable
• Installation cost is more
Ring Topology
• In ring topology each device is connected with two devices on either
side of it
• All the nodes are connected in circular fashion to form the ring
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Ring Topoogy
Advantages
• Easy to install and expand
• Requires less cabling
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type
of topology.
• installation cost is less
Disadvantages
• The failure of a single node in the network can
cause the entire network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal
of stations can disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.
Tree Topology
• In tree topology number of star
networks are connected using
backbone cable

• It uses characteristics of star and

bus topology
Advantages
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Easy to expand
• Easy fault detection and isolation
• Eliminates traffic problem
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
• If the main cable fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
• Maintenance is difficult
Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology every device has a
dedicated point to point link to every
other device in the network
• We need n(n-1)/2 links for the entire
network
• The use of dedicated link reduces the
traffic problem
• Mesh topology is robust the failure of
one link does not affect the whole
system
• Because of point to point link mesh
topology offers privacy and security
 Mesh Topology

Advantages
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• Fault identification and isolation is easy
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• maintenance is difficult.
• More cable and input output ports are required
• Expensive topology
Hybrid Topology
• Hybrid topology is the
combination of two or more
types of topologies.
• This type of topology is
implemented according to the
requirements of organization
• Two common examples of hybrid
topology are Star-Ring and Star-
Bus
Hybrid Topology
• Advantages
• This topology is very flexible.
• easy to expand.
• Fault detection is easy
• troubleshooting is easy
• Drawbacks
• Design of hybrid topology is difficult.
• Installation and configuration is difficult
• hardware cost is high
• Maintenance cost is more
Transmission Media
• A. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):-
• Usually consists of two copper wires wrapped
in individual plastic insulation.
• UTP cables are the most common
telecommunications medium.
• The frequency range of the twisted pair cables
enable both voice and data transmission.
• UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted
cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ11 connector
and 4 pair cable useRJ-45 connector
• Advantages:
• ⇢ cheap
• ⇢ Easy to install
• ⇢ High-speed capacity
• Disadvantages:
• ⇢ Susceptible to external interference
• ⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• ⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
• Applications:
• Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering which
encases each pair of insulated conductors .
• Electromagnetic interference is prevented by metal casing.shielding also
eliminates crosstalk
• It is faster than UTP and coaxial cable
• It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.
• Advantages:
• ⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• ⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
• ⇢ Comparatively faster
• Disadvantages:
• ⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• ⇢ More expensive
• ⇢ Bulky
• Applications:
• The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely
cold climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
• The name coaxial is because it contains two conductors that are parallel to
each other and share common axis.
• Inner conductor is made of copper which is surrounded by PVC insulation.
• The outer conductor is metal foil, mesh or both.
• Outer metallic conductor is used as a shield against noise. The outer
conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath.
• The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
• Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive

• Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
• Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.

• Applications:
• Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television
signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like
Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their
antennas
• An optical fiber has an cylindrical shape and consists of 3 concentric section –
(i)Core (ii) Cladding (iii) Jacket
• Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
core is a light transmission area of the fibre
• Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of
the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause
the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
• Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection. 7.29
Advantages :
•Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed (bandwidth 2
Gbps)
•These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is
very less.
•Highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of signal radiation.
•Used for both analog and digital signals.  Smaller size and light weight
•Lower attenuation

Disadvantages :
•It is expensive  Difficult to install. requires highly skilled installers
•Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
•Do not allow complete routing of light signals.
• Applications
• Telephones, including cellular wireless
• Internet LANs - local area networks
• CATV - for video, voice and Internet connections
• Utilities - management of power grid
• Security - closed-circuit TV and intrusion sensors
• Transportation – smart lights and highways
• Military – everywhere!
•
Infrared Radio Waves
Infrared is used for short-range communication. Radio waves are the type of wireless
communication that can travel large distances

The frequency range of infrared rays 300GHz – 400THz The frequency range of radio waves:3KHz – 1GHz.

Infrared rays cannot penetrate any obstacles . Radio waves can penetrate any obstacles ( Omni-
directional)

More secured Less secured

Infrared waves are used in TV remotes, mobile phones, Radio waves are used in AM and FM radios, and
personal computers cordless phones.
• (i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radio waves for transmission.
• (iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They
cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference
between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Data Encapsulation
OSI Reference Model
 Physical Layer

• The physical layer is responsible for the movement of individual bits from one hop (node)
to the next.

Functions of Physical Layer

• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.
• It also defines the type of transmission medium.
• How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for.

• Representation of bits: What electrical signals should be used to represent a 1 and a 0.

• Data rate: bits to be transmitted per second.

• Synchronization of bits:Sender and Receiver must be synchronized

• Physical topology : Mesh, Ring, Star, etc.

• Transmission mode. Simplex, Half duplex, Duplex

Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Functions of Data Link Layer

• Framing :Divides the stream of bits into manageable data units called frames.

• Physical addressing:Adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame.

• Flow control : Imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Synchronization between fast sender and slow receiver.
• Error control : Adds mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames (CRC).

• Access control: Determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
• Link establishment and termination:Establishes and terminates the logical link between two
nodes.
• Frame sequencing:Transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.

Functions of Network Layer

• Logical addressing

• Routing.

• Congestion control

• Accounting and billing

• Address transformation
• Source host to destination host error free delivery of packet.
 Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another

• Functions of Transport Layer

• Service point addressing

• Segmentation and reassembly

• Connection control

• Flow control: Flow control is performed end to end

• Error control
Session Layer

• To establish ,manage and terminate a session

Functions of Session Layer

• Dialog control
• Synchronization, session and sub session
• Session closure
 Presentation layer:

To translate ,encrypt and compress the data

Functions of Presentation layer :

• Translation: presentation layer is responsible for converting various formats into required format of the
recipient.
• Encryption: Data encryption and decryption is done by presentation layer for security.
• Compression and Decompression: data is compressed while sending and decompress while receiving
for reducing time of transmission.
To allow access to the network resources

Functions of Application layer:

• Network virtual terminal
• File transfer access and management
• Mail services and directory services
TCP/IP Layers

• Application Layer An application layer is the topmost layer within the TCP/IP
model. When one application layer protocol needs to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its information to the transport layer.
protocols include HTTP, FTP, SMTP etc.
• Transport Layer It is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction
of data that is being sent over the network. There are two protocols used in
this layer are User Datagram Protocol and Transmission control protocol.
• Internet/Network Layer It is the third layer of the TCP/IP Model and also
known as the Network layer. The main responsibility of this layer is to send
the packets from any network, and they arrive at the goal irrespective of the
route they take. Protocols at this layer are IP,ARP,ICMP etc
• Network Access Layer It is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP Model. It is the
combination of the Physical Layer and the Data link layer which present in the
OSI Model. Its main responsibility is to the transmission of information over
the same network between two devices.