How much do you understand your own

Conscience

道德良心知多少
Dr. Anselm Lam 林榮鈞博士
Contents

 Meaning of Morality

1. Conscience in terms of Ethics / Moral Philosophy

1.1 What is Conscience
1.2 Kinds of Conscience
1.3 Following the judgment of Conscience
1.4 Summary 1

2. Conscience in the Eyes of the Chinese ( 中國人看良知 )

良知就是良心上的知覺或認識

3. Christians’ Views on Conscience

Summary 2
Summary 3

4. The Formation of Conscience

Case 1
• You have bought a new computer from a particularly inefficient
internet store, and when it arrives, you notice that the invoice says
‘paid’, although in fact you have not paid for it. You clicked the
‘sending money by post’ option instead, and then forgot to. Now do
you:

• Hope they don’t notice, and keep mum . . . or ring up straight

away to advise a cheque is being sent in the post?
• What will you do?
Case 2

• Scott couldn’t believe his eyes when he checked Facebook this

morning. A new page, “SCU Confessions,” had just been
created, and one of the first “confessions” was about him!
Someone shared a story where he had gotten really drunk last
week and did a few things he wasn’t proud of. Granted, he
wasn’t mentioned by name, but it was a unique enough situation
that everyone he knew would recognize it as being about him.
• Scott had heard about other schools starting pages like this, where
people message the page administrator their secrets, hook-up stories,
dirty deeds, and anything else that they would want to share
anonymously. Scott initially thought these pages were hilarious, and
even “liked” the ones from other schools just so that he could be
entertained. However, now that he was reading something about him,
he felt embarrassed and upset. Already it had 50 “likes” and counting,
and several of his friends tagged him in the comments so that he
would see it. To make matters worse, the post was anonymous, so he
had no way of knowing who was spreading the story around.
• Scott’s friends told him to laugh it off; it wasn’t that big of a deal. Even
he had to admit that the story was objectively pretty funny, and most of
the other posts on the page were relatively harmless as well. On the
other hand, he could envision how people would take advantage of the
anonymity and could potentially cause somebody real harm.
•
What do you think about Facebook college “Confessions” or “Hook-
Up” pages? Do you feel like this type of anonymous sharing can be
hurtful and even dangerous, or do you think it’s a harmless way to tell
funny stories? Have you ever submitted anything to a page like this, or
been mentioned in a post?
 Trolley Dilemma
• If the approaching train's braking system fails, it will kill five workers
working on the track in front. Now you can turn the train in the other
direction, but a worker is working there. How would you choose?
• How do we judge a “right” or “wrong” act?
• What is your principle of judgment?
• How do you prioritize values?
 Life and Ethics
• Life experience precedes a study of right and wrong, or good and
bad
• We decide what we should do everyday.
• It involves experience, understanding and judgment by reason,
memory of past experiences, decision by will, and the drive by
passion.
• Ethics is a study of right behavior for good life.
Ethical and other types of evaluation

• A: How’s the meal? B: That’s great!

• C: How’s the movie last night? D: That movie is wonderful!

• They are emotional evaluation but do not tell us much about

the meal and the movie.
• Ethical judgment concerning values tells us what the speaker believes is
good or bad.

• E.g., What do you think about students’ plagiarism as instructed by a

teacher?

1.They did nothing wrong because they just followed their teacher’s
instructions. Obedience is a virtue.
2.They are wrong because taking other’s opinions without acknowledging
it is an act of stealing.
 Ethical Evaluations
• Moral judgments are evaluative because they “place a value,”
negative or positive, on some action or practice such as capital
punishment.

• Because these evaluations also rely on beliefs in general about

what is good or right—in other words, on norms or standards of
good and bad or right and wrong—they are also normative.
 Normative Judgment
• Plagiarism is wrong or bad because it violates the right of private
property. This judgment relies on beliefs about the value of
private property.
• Capital punishment is justifiable. This judgment relies on the
principle of communal self defense.

• Ethics of this sort is called normative ethics both because it is

evaluative and not simply descriptive and because it grounds its
judgments on certain norms or values.
 Different Normative Judgment
• There are different sources of behavior norm, e.g., religion, law,
customs, and morality.

• Religion: clothing, eating, worship, sex

• Law: traffic, property ownership, marriage, tax
• Morality: personal, social
 Normative Judgments in

Ethics Law Religion Custom

Moral Foundation
• Ethics is concerned with belief and value. We make moral judgment
based on our principles and beliefs.
• What are your moral beliefs?
• Life, pleasure…..
• These values or beliefs relate to your understanding of good life.
• The practice of these values make you a human being distinctive
from animals.
Structure of Moral Decision
Reason Free Will

Intention

Circumstances Passion

Act

Unintended
Intended foreseeable
Consequence Unintended
Consequence Consequence
 Meaning of morality 1
Morality is the quality or value human acts have by which we call them right or
wrong, good or evil.
• Subjective morality - asks whether the act agrees with the agent's own
judgment of conscience.
• Objective morality - asks whether any normal person with full command of
his or her own powers is allowed deliberately to will that kind of act.
• Morality in its completeness includes both its subjective and its objective
aspects.
1
Cf. Fagothey, Austin S.J., Right & Reason: Ethics in Theory and Practice, 5th ed. (1972), 39-40; Gonsalves, Milton A., Fagothey’s Right & Reason: Ethics
in Theory and Practice, 9th ed. (New Jersey, 1989), 49-51.
 Meaning of morality (Cont’d)

The study of ethics generally stresses objective morality.

Ethics takes as its starting point a fact of human experience: the conviction that
some acts are right and ought to be done, and others are wrong and ought not to be
done, and still others are indifferent …

Conscience is not so much a part of ethics as it is the morally evaluating self, that
ethics as a study seeks to serve.
• How do you know whether the decision you made is right?
• Or your act is right?
• A conflict between reason and feeling?
• Unpeaceful feeling? 不安
How do you understand Conscience?
• Discuss with one other student what they are saying about what it is to
be human.

• Do these statements challenge you and your ideas?

• Together write a simple definition of conscience to share with the rest

of the class.
What is Conscience?
• The term “conscience” translates the Latin “conscientia”, which refers
to sharing “knowledge” (scientia) “with” (con-), and which in turns
translates the equivalent Greek term suneidenai (see Pierce 1955 and
Sorabji 2014 for an etymological analysis of the term).

• The literal meaning of the term does not specify the type of knowledge
involved and whom that knowledge is shared with. However, the
concept has traditionally been used to refer to moral knowledge (we
talk indifferently of conscience and moral conscience) that is
shared with oneself.
• Reference to the self indicates that, from a psychological point of
view, conscience involves introspection, awareness of one’s behavior,
and self-assessment.
• Different understanding of conscience:
• First, conscience is a pluralistic notion.
• Second, conscience is typically a morally neutral concept.
• Finally, conscience only concerns the subjective dimension of
morality.

• Conscience, retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/conscience/

1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy 2

1.1 What is conscience?

Conscience is the intellect’s practical judgment of reason upon an

individual act as good and to be performed or as evil and to be

avoided. (Fagothey)
2
Cf. Fagothey, Austin S.J., Right & Reason: Ethics in Theory and Practice, 5th ed. (1972), 40-48; Gonsalves, Milton A., Fagothey’s Right & Reason:
Ethics in Theory and Practice, 9th ed. (New Jersey, 1989), 51-60.
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)
1.1 What is conscience ？ (Cont’d)
The term conscience can actually be applied to any of the three
distinct aspects of this judgment process :
i) The intellect as a person's ability, under the influence of a
desire to do the right and the good, to form judgments about
the right and wrong of individual acts
ii) The process of reasoning that we go through, under the
influence of the desire, to reach such a judgment
iii) The conclusion of this reasoning process, which is called the
evaluative judgment of conscience
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)
1.1 What is conscience ？ (Cont’d)
The reasoning process involved in arriving at a judgment of
conscience.

Logical deductive argument / syllogism

major premise: The major premise employed in forming the
judgment of conscience is a general moral principle. Synderesis -
habit of general principles.
minor premise: The minor premise - application of the principles
to a particular case.
Conclusion: The conclusion logically following is the judgment
of the conscience
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)

1.1 What is conscience ？ (Cont’d)

Conscience is ....
 the morally evaluating self
 my moral awareness
 my personal value orientation
the total moral personality — (Gonsalves)
• Any case of conscience?
• Remorse? Guilt? Shame?
個案一：
•
宋醫生是某公立醫院小兒加護病房的主顧問醫生，前天上午，有
位張太太生了一個體重一千一百公克的早產女嬰。今天中午，父
母親要孩子出院。醫生知道如果孩子出院一定會死。昨天宋醫生
已經跟父母解釋清楚孩子的情況：活下去的可能性很高，沒有任
何後遺症的可能性也相當高。照醫院的統計，這種體重的小孩存
活率為 82 ％，後遺症方面（腦部、肺部受損或眼睛視力不良）
可能性只有 20 ％。關於醫療費方面，平均要花三、四十萬元。
當醫生知道父母決定要孩子出院，他的良心很不安。他知道父母
是因為現實問題而不得不忍痛犧牲辛苦懷胎的骨肉，但是他認為
自己有責任保護這無辜的生命，所以他不答應讓女嬰出院。他知
道這個決定會引起很多醫院裡的問題。在法律上，父母放棄嬰兒
生存的權利是違法的，但從沒有人告發。
 Case 1
• Dr. Song is the chief consultant in the pediatric intensive care unit of a
public hospital. The morning before yesterday, Mrs. Cheung gave birth
to a premature baby girl weighing 1,100 grams. At noon today, the
parents wanted their child to be discharged from the hospital. The
doctor knew that the child would die if discharged from the hospital.
• Yesterday, Dr. Song had clearly explained the child’s condition to his
parents: the probability of survival is very high, and the probability of
not having any sequelae is also quite high. According to hospital
statistics, the survival rate of children of this weight is 82%, and the
possibility of sequelae (damage to the brain, lungs or poor eyesight) is
only 20%. Regarding medical expenses, the average cost is 300,000 to
400,000 dollars.
• When the doctor learned that the parents had decided to discharge the
child, his conscience was troubled. He knew that parents had to bear
the pain of sacrificing their baby because of practical problems, but he
believed that he had the responsibility to protect this innocent life, so
he refused to let the baby girl leave the hospital. He knew this decision
would cause many problems in the hospital. Legally, it is illegal for
parents to give up their infant’s right to live, but no one ever reports on
it.
個案二：
• 林春美今年 45 歲，高中畢業，丈夫是相當出名的工程師，他們
有三個孩子。老大智能不足，行動也不方便， 18 歲時又發現患
有輕微的慢性精神分裂。他們夫妻覺得無法把孩子留在家裡，因
為負擔太重，看到他這樣心裡也很難過。如果住院，一個月要三
萬多，也覺心痛。幸好他們認識社會福利署署長，署長寫了一張
紙條，肯定這孩子家境貧窮，醫療費用和住宿費全部由政府負擔，
並且把孩子安排在市外一家全香港最好的公立療養院。林春美是
在教會長大的，小時候很想嫁給一位牧師，但後來怕牧師太窮，
不過她非常有愛心。她也很注意國家、政治，對自己所生的老大
也曾毫無保留地付出了 18 年的愛心；只是孩子的精神分裂發作
之後，她無法維持下去。
這種安排是否違背倫理？是否違背基督徒的倫理？
Case 2
• Lam Chuen Mei is 45 years old and has graduated from high school.
Her husband is a well-known engineer and they have three children.
The eldest child is mentally deficient and has difficulty moving
around. When he was 18 years old, he was found to have mild chronic
schizophrenia. The couple felt that they could not leave their child at
home because the burden was too heavy, and they were sad to see him
like this.
• If were he hospitalized, it would cost more than 30,000 dollars a
month, which would be heartbreaking. Fortunately, they knew the
Director of Social Welfare, who wrote a note confirming that the
child's family was poor, and all medical expenses and accommodation
expenses would be borne by the government, and the child was placed
in one of the best public nursing homes in Hong Kong.
• Lam Chuen Mei grew up in the church. When she was a child, she
wanted to marry a pastor, but later she was afraid that the pastor would
be too poor. However, she was very caring. She also pays great
attention to the country and politics, and has given unreserved love to
her eldest son for 18 years; but after the child's schizophrenia, she
could not maintain it.
Is this arrangement unethical?
Does it violate Christian ethics?
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)

1.3 Following the judgment of Conscience

 Always obey a certain conscience

 Never act with a doubtful conscience

 Always obey a certain conscience

¨A certain and correct conscience

¨A certain but erroneous conscience

 Never act with a doubtful conscience

¨One must try one’s best to solve the doubt

1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)

1.3 Following the judgment of Conscience (Cont’d)

One must try one's best to solve the doubt :
¨ Direct method (theoretical doubt) what is the actual truth about the matter at hand
- one must use the direct method first:
 Inquire and seek advice - friend, competent person, reading, reading Bible,
Teaching of the Church
 Reason over the matter more carefully
 Pray, listen to one’s ‘inner voice’

¨ Indirect method (practical doubt) what is one obliged to do in such a situation

- use only when the direct method yields no result
allowed to choose — always
 Morally safer course
obligation to follow — sometimes
 Doubtful obligation does not bind - the obligation in doubt.
Step 1: Define the issue
Begin by defining the issue at hand as clearly as possible. In some
cases, such as capital punishment, this may require considerable
study and reflection. In other cases, such as stealing or destroying
property, the issue may be more easily understood.

Step 2: Seek advice

After defining the issue, look for outside resources for information
and guidance.
Among those resources are the following:
• the values and teachings of Jesus as found in the New Testament,
• the formal teachings of the Church,
• the advice of respected people who possess deep faith and
obvious goodwill.
Step 3: Reflect honestly on the consequence
Reflect on the morality of certain actions, decisions, and attitudes in
light of the results they are likely to cause.

Step 4: Pray for God’s guidance

In prayer, the believer weighs the results of all the reflection
suggested by the previous steps. The Christian asks God to guide
him or her to do what is right and to reject what is wrong. A special
gift of the Holy Spirit towards this end is “Right Judgement”.

Step 5: Decide and act

Once the Catholic Christian has seriously considered a decision in
light of guidelines such as these, he or she can act with confidence.
The subjective moral Conscience and the
objective moral values
• Is your judgment of conscience same as mine? If not, why?
• Does everyone have their own conscience?
• Is your inner voice coming from the conscience?
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)

1.2 Kinds of conscience :

 antecedent conscience 事前良心
 consequent conscience 事後良心
 (Prudently) certain conscience ( 謹慎 ) 確定良心
 doubtful conscience 懷疑良心
 correct conscience 正確良心
 erroneous conscience vincibly erroneous conscience
錯誤良心 invincibly erroneous conscience
 strict conscience 嚴謹良心
 perplexed conscience 困惑良心
 scrupulous conscience 多顧慮良心
 sincere/truthful conscience 誠實良心
 lax conscience 放縱良心
 dulled conscience 麻木良心
Difference between Superego and Conscience
From: Gula, R. (1997). Conscience. In Moral discernment (pp. 11-40): Paulist
Press.
Superego
Commands us to act for the sake of gaining
approval or out of fear of losing love.
Turned in toward self in order to secure
one’s sense of being of value, of being
lovable.
Tends to be static by merely repeating a
prior command. Unable to learn or function
creatively in a new situation.
Oriented primarily toward authority: not a
matter of responding to value but of obeying
the command of authority blindly.
Primary attention is given to individual acts
as being important in themselves apart from
the larger context or pattern of actions
Conscience
Responds to an invitation to love; in the very
act of responding to other one co-creates
self-value.
Fundamental openness that is oriented
toward the other and the value that calls for
action.
Tends to be dynamic by a sensitivity to the
demand of values that call for new ways of
responding.
Oriented primarily toward value: responds to
the value that deserves preference
regardless of whether authority recognizes it
or not.
Primary attention is given to the larger
process or pattern. Individual acts become
important within this larger context.
 Superego Conscience
Oriented toward the past: “The way we Oriented toward the future: “The person one
were”. ought to become”.

Punishment is the sure guarantee of Reparation comes through structuring the

reconciliation. The more sever the future toward the value in question. Creating
punishment, the more certain one is of being the future makes good the past.
reconciled.

The transition from guilt to self-renewal Self-renewal is a gradual process of growth

comes fairly easily and rapidly by means of that characterises all dimensions of
confessing to the authority. development.

Often finds a great disproportion between Experience of guilt is proportionate to the

feelings of guilt experienced and the value at degree of one’s knowledge, freedom, and
stake, for extent of guild depends more on emotional stability as well as the value at
the significance of authority figure disobeyed stake, even through the authority may never
than the weight of the value at stake. have addressed the specific value.
• The characteristics of a correct conscience:

1. Reasonable: morally logical; evaluate and prioritize values;

2. Autonomous
3. Out of love
4. Open to authority
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)

1.4 Summary 1

The dignity of the human person implies and requires uprightness of moral
conscience. Conscience includes the perception of the principles of morality
(synderesis); their application in the given circumstances by practical discernment
of reasons and goods; and finally, judgment about concrete acts yet to be
performed or already performed.
The truth about the moral good, stated in the law of reason, is recognized
practically and concretely by the prudent judgment of conscience. We call that
man prudent who chooses in conformity with this judgment. (CCC 1780)
1. Conscience in terms of Moral Philosophy (Cont’d)

1.4 Summary 1 ...(Cont'd)

人位格的尊嚴包含並要求道德良心的正直。道德良心包括對道德原則領會

( 本性良心， synderesis ) ，包括將這些原則，經過理性和善惡的實際分辨之

後，運用於目前的環境，最後，包括對一些具體的行為，不論是行將開始的，

或是己經完成的，作出判斷。在理性的法律內有關道德善所宣告的真理，實

際上，具體地，亦為良心所作的謹慎判斷所承認。人稱那依照這判斷作選擇

的人為明智的人。 (CCC 1780)

46
46
2. Conscience in the Eyes of the Chinese ( 中國人看良知 )

良知就是良心上的知覺或認識。 ( 周世輔《中國哲學史》 )

孟子【盡心上】：「人之所不學而能者，其良能也，
所不慮而知者，其良知也。」

— 良知是天賦的道德觀念，是先天之知。

王陽明：「不待學而有，不待慮而得。」 ( 《王文成公全書》卷八 )

— 良知是個是非之心：
「良知是個是非之心，是非即是好惡，只好
惡就盡了是非，只是非就盡了萬事萬變。」
( 《傳習錄》卷三 )
2. Conscience in the Eyes of the Chinese ( 中國人看良知 ) ... 續

— 良知即善，良知能明善惡：
「善即良知，言良知，側使人尤為易曉。」
「知善知惡是良知。」
— 良知即「明德之本體」— 道德之核心 ( 錢穆《陽明學述要》 )
良知人人皆有，良知不顯靈是由於被「私欲」所蒙蔽，
因此人要除掉「私欲」恢復「本心」。

— 良知即天理：
「吾心之良心，即所謂天理也。」
「良知所思不離乎天理之範圍。」
良知顯用，即天理顯現，良知不顯用，
即是人欲作主。
「去人欲，存天理。」
3. Christians’ Views on Conscience
Summary 2

Moral conscience, present at the heart of the person, enjoins him at the appropriate
moment to do good and to avoid evil. It also judges particular choices, approving
those that are good and denouncing those that are evil. It bears witness to the
authority of truth in reference to the supreme Good to which the human persons is
drawn, and it welcomes the commandments. ... (CCC 1777)

道德的良心存在人心深處，在適當的時刻，囑咐他行善避惡。道德良心也判
斷具體的抉擇，良好的予以贊同，不好的加以譴責。道德的良心証明與至善
相關真理的權威，人原受至善的吸引並由祂領受了誡命。
... (CCC1777)
3. Christians’ Views on Conscience (Cont’d)
Summary 3 3

• Conscience is the echo of God’s voice … the Creator has implanted his own law into his rational
creatures … this law apprehended in the minds of individual men is called conscience … may suffer
refraction … is not so affected as to lose its character

• Comparing conscience with an angel — a messenger of God … having the offices of prophet, king and
priest

• Often it is difficult to discern the appeals of conscience from passions, from pride and self-love …
demands of conscience oblige people to be watchful

• Conscience needs to be formed

(St. John Henry Newman 1801-1890)

3
Cf. Hermann Geissler FSO, Conscience and Truth in the writings of Blessed John Henry Newman, International
Centre of Newman Friends.
3. Christians’ Views on Conscience (Cont'd)

Summary 3

Conscience is an instrument for detecting moral truth.4

透過自己的良心人可以覺察到道德真理

(St. John Henry Newman)

4
A concise expression of John Henry Newman’s Oxford University Sermons, quoted by Pope John Paul II, Address of the Holy Father John
Paul II To the Bishops From the United States of America on Their ‘Ad Limina’ Visit, 15 October 1988.
4. The Formation of Conscience ( 良心的培育 )

Conscience must be informed and moral judgment enlightened. A well-formed

conscience is upright and truthful. It formulates its judgments according to
reason, in conformity with the true good willed by the wisdom of the Creator.
The education of conscience is indispensable for human beings who are
subjected to negative influences and tempted by sin to prefer their own
judgment and to reject authoritative teachings. (CCC 1783)

良心應受到教導，道德的判斷該受到光照。受過良好培育的良心是正直和
誠實的。它依循理性，符合造物主的智慧所願的真善而作出判斷。良心的
教育是必需的，因為人類遭受負面的影響，並受到罪的誘惑，寧願隨從個
人的私意，拒絕接受權威性的教導。 (CCC 1783)
4. The Formation of Conscience ( 良心的培育 ) (Cont'd)

The education of the conscience is a lifelong task

... (CCC 1784)

良心的教育是一項畢生的工作 ... (CCC 1784)

• Joanna’s father is dying after suffering from pain for a long time . The
doctor said there is nothing he can do for him except giving him a
heavy dose of morphine. In fact, Joanna’s father cannot live without
the breathing machine. He asks Joanna whether she wants to keep the
machine on or off. Joanna feels that she is killing her father if she
turns off the machine. She felt guilt of her decision.
• Is her conscience right?
• What do you think?
• 個案一：
林先生在一家工廠工作五、六年之後，因為工作環境空氣污染的關係，他
得了肺病，這是一種絕症。
今年二月住進馬偕醫院，因為逐漸無法自己呼吸，所以住在加護病房，靠
呼吸器維持生命。家裡的經濟狀況並不好，幸好他有勞保。
如果從加護病房搬到普通病房，繼續用呼吸器，應該還可以活幾個月，但
是死亡的可能性較大，因為不易急救。如果住在普通病房，需要有家人陪
伴或自費請一名護工，但他們不太願意花這筆錢，所以把病人留在加護病
房。
醫院的醫生主張搬出來，但家屬不願請護工。家屬去請教一名醫學倫理學
家，這位專家說可以停用呼吸器，讓病人自然死亡，但醫生和牧師都不敢
這樣做。
你認為該怎麼做呢？
• How to form your conscience in this divided world?
• How do we know the moral truth lest trapping into the subjective blind
spot?
Knowing yourself and Knowing your conscience
The family car
Jackson used the family car last night. While backing out
of the car park on his way home, he damaged another car
to the tune of $3000. He did about $1800 worth of damage
to the family car.
Realising that he would have to pay if he admitted the
accident, Jackson failed to leave a note on the damaged
car, nor did he try to locate its owner. Today, Jackson
feels uneasy over his decisions.

• What are the values and beliefs that Jackson refers to in his decision?
 You like a group of students that hang out together and you
want to be their friend so that you can be part of their
activities. One day while you're talking with them in school,
they begin to ridicule and laugh at the unattractive girls or
boys who walk by. You know that if you say something
against them, they might turn on you and the chance for
friendship will be lost. But at the same time, you feel sorry
for the girls or boys at whom they are laughing and know
that their feelings have really been hurt.

• What are the values and beliefs affecting you in this scenario?
• How do you feel at that moment?
• What are the underlying cause of your feelings?
Self
• Vision of life: coming from parents, church, friends, society…
• Stories and Images: Imagination and alternatives
• What, Who, When, Why, How? What if? What else?
Conscience

• What kind of
person you want
to be?
Bibliography

Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994)

Fagothey, Austin S.J., Right & Reason: Ethics in Theory and Practice, 5th ed. (1972).

Gonsalves, Milton A., Fagothey’s Right & Reason: Ethics in Theory and Practice, 9th ed. (New Jersey, 1989).

Hermann Geissler FSO, Conscience and Truth in the writings of Blessed John Henry Newman, International Centre of
Newman Friends (www.newmanfriendsinternational.org).

Ratzinger, Joseph, On Conscience, National Catholic Bioethics Centre (Philadelphia, 2007).

天主教教理 ( 香港 1996)

周世輔，《中國哲學史》 ( 台北 1971)

牟宗三，《從陸象山到劉蕺山》 ( 台灣 1984 版 )

錢穆，《陽明學述要》 ( 台北 1963 版 )

黃淑珍，〈比較王陽明的感應與柏克萊的知覺〉《靈澤》 ( 香港 1992)