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Vector Analysis Other
Vector Analysis Other
¥ector Analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Any problem concerning an electrical network can be viewed from two angles:
(a) Circuit point of view.
(b) Field point of view.
It can be said that a proper understanding of concept of field theory provides a better
understanding of analysis of circuit problems. Vector analysis is a valuable mathematical tool
for engineers for solving certain type of problems where the conventional methods become
lengthy and cumbersome. The analysis with vectors even though little difficult to understand in
the beginning, but effectively gives the solution of field quantities both in magnitude and
direction. For this reason, a review of vector analysis is provided at the beginning of course.
There is a lot of difference between circuit theory and field theory. Electromagnetic field
theory deals directly with the field vectors viz. electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) while
circuit theory deals with voltage (V) and current (I) that are the integrated effects of electric
and magnetic fields. In general, electromagnetic field problems involve three space variables as
a result of which the solutions tend to become comparatively complex. The additional problem that
arises due to dealing with vector quantities in three dimension can be overcome by use of vector
analysis. The use of vector analysis in the study of electromagnetic field theory thus saves
time and provides economy of thought. In addition the vector form gives a clear
understanding of physical laws which is described by mathematics.
1
2 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
In order to distinguish a vector from a scalar, an arrow on the top is used to denote a vector. So
for example, A, B, C represent vector quantities and A, B, C represent scalar quantities.
1.3 FIELD
Although a scalar field has no direction, it does have a specific location. Mathematically a field is
a function which describes a physical quantity at all points in space. This field can be classified as
either scalar (or) vector.
1. Scalar Field
It implies the distribution of scalar quantity with a definite position in space. The temperature of
hot water in a container is an example of scalar field.
2. Vector Field
If the value of physical function at every point is vector quantity, the field is a vector field. For
example, the wind velocity of atmosphere, gravitational force and electric field intensity are
vector fields.
vector can be obtained by moving a point along P and then along Q or sum of vectors P a n d Q , we can
written as
R P Q …(1.1)
Q
R
P P
R
Q
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.1
From nature of definition
Q P of vector
P Q addition, it is apparent that …(1.2)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 3
If the vectors P and Q are situated as shown in F i g . 1.1 (b), then the resultant vector R i s
obtained by completing the parallelogram formed by two vectors.
1.4.2 Subtraction of Vectors
To subtract two vectors the best method which is to be followed
–Q
is to change the direction of vector and then add. As shown in
Fig. 1.2, the direction of vector Q is changed which results in R
(R = P – Q)
magnitude of (–) Q and which on addition with P give the
P
resultant vector R whose value is given by R P Q .
3. Multiplication of Vectors
Fig. 1.2
The multiplication of vectors has been classified into three
categories:
(a) When vector is multiplied by a scalar.
(b)When a vector is multiplied by another vector resulting in a scalar quantity. This is
called as Scalar (or) Dot product.
(c)When a vector is multiplied by another vector resulting in vector quantity. This is
called as Vector (or) Cross product.
These three classifications of multiplication can be discussed in detail as follows:
1.4.3.1 Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar
When a vector quantity is multiplied by a scalar quantity, the magnitude of vector changes,
but its direction remains unchanged. Thus it can be shown that if vector P
is multiplied with a
of
scalar ‘a’ it results in vector Q with same direction as P .
Thus, Q =a P …(1.3)
1.4.3.2 Scalar (or) Dot Product
The scalar (or) Dot product of two vectors is the product, of magnitude of vectors multiplied by
cosine of the smaller angle between them.
Let P and Q be two vectors and pq denote angle between them.
P · Q = | P | | Q | cos pq …(1.4)
Obviously the result is a scalar quantity and also it can be written as
P.Q Q .P …(1.5)
We can come to a decision from equation (1.4) that the vectors have same direction
when = 0 i.e., cos = 1 and the two vectors are opposite in direction when = 180° i.e., cos
= – 1 and the two vectors are perpendicular to each other when = 90° i.e., cos 90° = 0.
1.4.3.3 Vector (or) Cross Product
It is the product of two vectors, where the magnitudes of vectors are multiplied by sine
of the smaller angle between them.
4 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
P Q = P Q sin
…(1.6)
j i
Py Q x
j jPy Q y
j . k Py Q z
+ . .
but k iother
i i j j k k = 1, while Pz Q xproduct
k jP z Q y unit
unlike k kvectors
Pz Q z will be zero.
P · Q = P x Q x + Py Q y + Pz Qz …(1.11)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 5
= i i Px Q x i j Px Q y i k Px Q z
+
j i Py Q x j
j Py Q y
j k Py Q z
+
k i Pz Q k j
x Pz Q y k k Pz Q z
Since i i = 0 and i j k and i k j . This becomes
i j
P ×Q = …(1.12)
k
Px Py Pz
Example 1.1: Vectors A = 3U x x + 5U yy + Q
Q Q 6Uz z and B = 6U x + 4U y + 2U z are situated at point
P (x, y, z). Find (a) A + B (b) A · B (c) angle between A and B (d) A × B (e) unit normal to
plane containing A and B .
Solution: Given A = 3U x + 5U y + 6U z and B = 6U x + 4U y + 2U z
A · B = (3 × 6) + (5 × 4) + (6 × 2) = 50
(c) A · B = | A | | B | cos AB
We have | A | = A 2x A 2y A 2z
= 32 52 62 =
8.366
| B | = Bx2 B y2 B 2z
= 62 42 22 =
Also 7.48
A · B = 50 (Calculated earlier)
i.e., cos 50
AB = 0.799 × 7.48 × cos
= 8.366 AB
A B = cos–1 0.799 = 36.96°
Ux Uy Uz
(d) A × B = Ax A y Az
in determinant form
Bx B y Bz
Ux Yy Uz
= 3 5 6 = 14U x + 30Uy + 18Uz on simplification.
6 4 2
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
We have Un = A B
| A B|
(a) R A B (b) |
R A | (c) | R B | (d) U A (e) U B (f) U A B (g) unit vector directed from C towards A .
Solution: Given
R A = 3 U x – 2 U y + 4U z , R B = 4 U x + 5 U y – 7U z and point C = (6, 2, 3)
(a) Vector
RA B = RB – RA
= (4Ux + 5U y – 7U z ) – (3Ux – 2U y + 4U z )
= U + 7U – 11Uz
(b) | R A | = (3)2 ( 2)2 x (4)2 y=
5.38
(f) U AB = R AB
|RA B |
(b) the angle between R A B a n d R A C (c) length of projection of R A B on R A C (d) vector projection of R A B
on R A C .
Solution:
(a)
R A B = RB – RA
= (2Ux + U y + 4Uz) – (4Ux + 3U y + 2Uz)
= – 2U x – 2U y + 2Uz
R A C = R C – RA
= (– 4U x + U y + 3Uz) – (4Ux + 3U y + 2Uz)
= – 8U x – 2U y + U z
(b) R A C == (–R2)
R A B . cos A B(–. 8)
R A+C (– 2) (– 2) + (2) (1) = 22
|RA B ||RA C |
22
=
(2)2 (2)2 (2)2
r
(d) R A P = Vector projection of R A B on R A C = ( R A B · U A C ) U A C
y
8U x 2U y U z
( 8)2 ( 2)2 (1)2
= 2.648
j j
= – 2.544Ux – 0.636Uy + 0.318Uz
jQ j
l r 3x y
Example 1.4: Given the field G 2 = j QU
l1 y j
x + (y + 2z + 1) U y + (5x – z ) U z . Find (a)
2
unit vector in directions of G at P (2, 2, – 3) (b) the angle between G and y = 0 plane at Q (2, 0,
4), (c) the value of
Solution:
z 2
y0 x1
3
G · dx dy U z at the plane z = 1.
(a)
z
G at point P
= jrl 3 (2) jQ
1 22
U x + (2 – 6 + 1) U y + [5 (2) – (– 3)2]
= 1.2Ux – 3U y – U z
Uz
y
8 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
1.2U x 3 U y 4U z
|G | = 0.233U x – 0.583U y – 0.7782U
U
|G | (1.2)2 ( 3)2 ( 4)2
z
zz
2
y0
3
x1
G · dx dy U z = z
2
y0 x1
3
(5x – z2) dx dy
r j 6 y (1) y 36 .
= 5 x2
z j
ly 2
Example 1.5: Find in rectangular
x
3 1
2
0
2 3
1
2
0
16U x 4U y 16Uz
U N = ± R M N R MQ
| R M N RM Q | (16)2 ( 4)2 ( 16)2
= ± (0.696Ux – 0.174Uy – 0.696Uz)
The unit vector with positive x component = 0.696Ux – 0.174Uy – 0.696Uz
(16)2 ( 4)2 ( 16)2
(c) sin = R M N R M Q
| RM N | | RM Q | ( 3)2 (8)2 ( 5)2 ( 1)2 (8)2 ( 3)2
= 0.2698
(or) = sin–1 (0.2698)= 15.65°.
z
1.6.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System
Students prefer to work in the Cartesian system or
coordinates since it is easy by virtue of familiarity. But
problem with spherical and cylindrical symmetries are P (, , z)
not only difficult to work in Cartesian system but the
physics of problem will be lost. It is easy to work out a
problem with spherical symmetry in spherical coordinate O y
x
Fig. 1.7
VECTOR ANALYSIS 11
…(1.15)
x
The dot product of unit vectors in cylindrical and Cartesian coordinate system can be
given as follows: U U Uz
Ux cos – sin 0
Uy sin cos 0
Uz 0 0 1
+ A U + A t U t A = A · U = 5U x
· U = 5 cos A = A · U = 5U x
· U = 5 sin A z = A · U z = 5U x
Substituting coordinate· U = 0 P in above vector A at point P = – 2.5 U – 4.33 U
ofz point
A = 5 cos U – 5 sin U
(b)
For point Q , = tan–1 H yxIJK= tanHFG 4IJ
FG –1
A= 53.13°
at point K
Q = 5 cos 53.13°Up – 5 sin 53.13°U
3
= 3U – 4U
(c) Let
B = 4U x – 2U y – 4U z = B U + B U + B z
U z B = B · U = (4Ux – 2U y – 4Uz) · U
= 4U x · U – 2U y · U – 4U z · U
= 4 cos – 2 sin
B = B · U = (4Ux – 2U y – 4Uz) · U
= 4U x · U – 2U y · U – 4U z · U
= – 4 sin – 2 cos
B z = B –1
= tan
FG IJ FG IJ
y x – 2 U y –1– 4Uz) ·3U z = – 4
· U z = (4U
= tan
for point A,
B = (4 cos – 2=sin
56.31°
) U + (– 4 sin – 2 cos )
Substituting coordinate
U –of4U
point
z
H K HK
Ax in above 2expression
B at point A = 0.555U – 4.438U – 4Uz
12 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Example 1.7: Give the vector in (a) Cartesian coordinates that extends from P ( = 5,
= 15°, z = 2) to Q ( = 6, = 65°, z = 5) (b) Give the vector in cylindrical coordinate at M (x = 4, y
= 2, z = 3) that extends to N(1, 5, 5) (c) How far is it from A (100, 60°, – 10) to B (20, 115°, 15)?
Solution: (a) Cartesian coordinate of point P are x = 5 cos 15° = 4.829; y = 5 sin15°
= 1.294; z = 2, i.e., P (4.829, 1.294, 2) and that of point Q are x = 6 cos 65° = 2.535; y = 6 sin 65°
= 5.437; z = 5, i.e., Q (2.535, 5.437, 5).
R P Q = rQ rP
Let = – 3U x + 3U y + 2Uz
A = R M N = – 3 U x + 3 U y + 2U z = A U + A U + A z U z
A = A · U = – 3U x · U + 3U y · U + 2U z · U
= – 3 cos + 3 sin
A = A · U = – 3U x · U + 3U y · U + 2U z · U
= 3 sin + 3 cos
A = R M N = (– 3 cos + 3 sin ) U + (3 sin + 3 cos ) U + 2U z
A z = A · U z = – 3U x · U z + 3U y · U z + 2U z · U z = 2
(a) Find the distance | R P Q | (b) Give a unit vector in Cartesian coordinate at P that is directed
towards Q (c) Give a unit vector in cylindrical coordinates at P that is directed towards Q.
Solution: (a) Cartesian coordinate of point P are x = 10 cos 45° = 7.071; y = 10 sin 45°
= 7.071; z = 4, i.e., P (7.071, 7.071, 4) and that of point Q are x = 5 cos 80° = 0.8682; y = 5 sin 80°
= 4.924 ; z = – 3, i.e., Q (0.8682, 4.924, – 3).
RP Q 6.2028Ux 2.147Uy
PQ
7U z
U =| R
P Q | 9.596
= – 0.6464Ux – 0.2237Uy – 0.7295Uz
(c) Let
A = R P Q = – 6.2028Ux – 2.147Uy – 7U z = A U + A U + A z U z
A = A · U = – 6.202Ux · U – 2.147Uy · U – 7U z · U
= – 6.202 cos – 2.147 sin
A = A · U = – 6.2028Ux · U – 2.147Uy · U – 3U z · U
= 6.2028 sin – 2.147 cos
A z = A · U z = – 6.2028Ux · U z – 2.147Uy · U z – 3U z · U z
=–3
A = R P Q = (– 6.2028 cos – 2.147 sin ) U + (6.2028 sin – 2.147 cos ) U – 3 U z
Substituting the coordinates of point P in above A we get R P Q
at point P = – 5.9042U + 2.867U – 3U z .
= F · U = 3 xyz U x · U – 6 (x + y + z) U z · U
Solution:
(a) Let A = 6U x = A U
+ A U + Az Uz A = A · U = 6
U x · U = 6 cos A = A · U = 6
U x · U = – 6 sin A z = A · U z = 6
Ux · Uz = 0
Substituting coordinate of point P in the above vector we have A at point P as
A = 6 cos U – 6 sin U
A = – 2.052U – 5.638U
= tan–1 FG IJ
y
= tan–1 6 FG IJ
(b) For point Q,
= 56.30°
H x K H 4K
A at point Q = 6 cos 56.30° U – 6 sin 56.30° U = 3.32U – 4.99U
(c) Let
B = 5 U x – 3U y – 4U z = B U + B U + B z U z
B = B · U = (5Ux – 3U y – 4Uz) · U
= 5U x · U – 3U y · U – 4U z · U
= 5 cos – 3 sin
B = B · U = (5Ux – 3U y – 4Uz) · U
= – 5 sin – 3 cos
B z = B · U z = (5Ux – 3U y – 4Uz) · U z = – 4Uz
B = (5 cos –1 y– 3 sin )
4
–1U + (– 5 sin – 3 cos
for point A ,) U GF
– 4Uz
= tan
I F
H Jx K HG J
= tan =
53.12°
Substituting coordinate of point A is the above B we have B at point A
I
B = – 0.60U3K
– 5.799U – 4U z
line drawn from origin to the point. The unit vectors corresponding to the three coordinate
axes are also represented in the Fig.1.8. They are mutually perpendicular and a differential
volume element made of following differential elements dr, d, d can be created. The differential
distance ‘r’ can be written as ‘dr’; the differential angle ‘’ can be written as ‘r d’ and the
differential angle ‘’ can be written as ‘r sin d’ and as a result the volume of differential
element can be written as r sin dr d d.
In order to convert the spherical coordinates into Cartesian coordinates the following
equations can be used:
x = r sin cos ; y = r sin sin ; z = r cos …(1.16)
The transformation in the reverse direction is achieved with help of following equations
which are derived from eqn. (1.16):
z y
r = x2 y2 z2 ; = cos–1 ; tan 1 …(1.17)
x 2 2
y z 2 x
The dot product of unit vectors of spherical and Cartesian coordinate systems can be
given as follows:
Ur U U
A r = A · U r = 3U x · U r = 3 sin cos
A = A · U = 3U x · U = 3 cos cos
A = A · U = 3U x · U = – 3 sin
A = 3 sin at
Substituting and coordinates cos UBr in
point + above
3 cos vector
cos we have A , at point B
U –= 3– sin U – 1.359U – 2.59U
0.633U r
G H I J = 105.5°; = tan IG
3.742 K
Substituting and coordinate of point A in above A , we have A at point
A = 2.137Ur – 0.2925U – 3.32U
(c) Let
H2K J
B = 4U x – 2U y – 4U z = B r U r + B U + B U
B r = B · U r = (4Ux – 2U y – 4Uz) · U r
16 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
= 4U x · U r – 2U y · U r – 4U z · U r
= 4 cos cos – 2 cos sin + 4 sin
B = B · U = (4Ux – 2U y – 4Uz) · U
= 4U x · U – 2U y · U – 4U z · U
= – 4 sin – 2 cos
B = (4 sin cos – 2 sin sin – 4 cos ) U r
+ (4 cos cos – 2 cos sin + 4 sin ) U
= cos–1
FHG5K
4I
J =
42.03°
and
= 180° + tan–1 HFG 3I
2K J=
236.3°
Substituting and coordinates of point P is above B expression we have B
at point P = – 3.343Ur + 2.266U + 4.438U
40 sin U
Example 1.12: An electric field intensity is given as E = r
FH
80 3(cos )
G U r3
r
At the point whose spherical coordinates are r = 2, = 60°, = 20°. Find (a) | E | (b) a unit
K IJ
vector in (Cartesian coordinates) in direction of E .
Solution:
E x = E · U x = 5U r · U x + 4.330U · U x
= 5 sin cos + 4.330 cos cos
E y = E · U y = 5U r · U y + 4.330U · U y
= 5 sin cos + 4.330 cos sin
E z = E · U z = 5U r · U z + 4.330U · U z
= 5 cos – 4.330 sin
E = (5 sin cos + 4.330 cos cos )Ux + (5 sin sin
Substituting = 60° and = 20° in above+ vector equation
4.330 cos sin )Uy + (5 cos – 4.330 sin )Uz
E at point (r = 2, = 60°, = 20°) = 6.094Ux + 2.220Uy – 1.249Uz
VECTOR ANALYSIS 17
L e t V denote a scalar field. The vector whose x, y and z-coordinates are , and
x yis termed
z
as gradient of V grad y, =z). ItUisx denoted
V (or)(x,V
at point U y by
+ grad
U z V (or) V. So by definition …(1.18)
x
y
z
From the above expression
= after
U x comparison,
U y + we U z can write as
…(1.19)
x y z
Here is not a vector but only a differential operator. Hence, gradient operation on a
scalar turns it into a vector.
V x V y V z
div V (or) · V = x y + z …(1.20)
If divergence of a vector is zero, the vector is termed as divergence free vector.
Now V =
F
G
U
Uy +
zI
U V …(1.21)
H
x
x
y zJ
K
18 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
· ( V) = ·
rj U U +
z
U
yV …(1.22)
lx y x y
z
j
VQ V V
2 2 2
…(1.23)
= +
x 2
y z 2 2
Consider a vector V = V x U x + V y U y + V z U z
We define curl as × V, so implementing the above formulae we can get
Ux Uy Uz
× V =
x y
z
Vx Vy Vz V
I FVV y V FV
×V = G
H y z JU G JU H x y JU
z x z y y x
F
…(1.24)
V HI z x G
x
I
z
K KF V V I
So we can write as FG V
V I F V V I
H J xGK H x Jy K
,
y z K H zK
z y
, G J is termed
x z y x
as curl of vector V.
2, 3) (b) a unit vector in direction of G at P (c) the (scalar) equation of surface on which
between (a)
P and Q. G at P = 3 (1)2 (2)U – 4(3 – 1)U + 6 (2) (3)U
x y z
Solution: = 6U – 8U + 36U
x y z
6 U x 8 U y 36U z
(b) G
U | G | = 0.16Ux – 0.214Uy – 0.96Uz
(6)2 ( 8)2 (36)2
(a) Volume = z z dv =
4
6 60 5
30 2
d d dz
r j2
= zjly z62 4
60
30 [z]52 = 15.708
(b) Suppose points P and Q are diametrically opposite corners of the volume. Then the
Q
lower limits of , and z gives the coordinates of point P where as the higher limits of , and z
given coordinates of point Q.
P (4, 30°, 2) and Q (6, 60°, 5)
Distance between PQ = (4 cos 30 6 cos 60)2 (4 sin 30 6 sin 60)2 (2 5)2
= 4.408
(c) Six surface of volume are located by coordinates
= 4 and 6, = 30° and 60°; z = 2 and 5
S = S 1 + S 2 + S 3 + S 4 + S 5 + S6
= z
60
30
5
2
d dz
2 zz zz z
60
30
5
2
d dz
6
4
5
2
d dz
30
6
2
5
d dz
60
z z
4
6 6 60 6 60
d d dz d d dz
z
+
=4 60
z 5
26
z
60
z 5
2
6
4
z 5
30
6
z2
z 5
4 30 z2
6 60 6
+ 2 2
2 4
2 4
= 38.180. jlQ 30
j 30
0
r sin d
5
= 90 sin 90° where r = 90 and = 90°
z
0
= 7.86
20 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
(b) distance between A B = [(90 sin 90° cos 0° – 90 sin 90° cos 5°)2
+ (90 sin 90° sin 0° – 90 sin 90° sin 5°)2 + (90 cos 90° – 90 cos 90°)2]1/2 = 7.847.
Example 1.16: Given point A (x = 3, y = 4, z = – 2) and B ( = 3, = – 45°, z = 2), find a
unit vector in cylindrical coordinates (a) at point B directed towards point A (b) at point A
directed towards point B.
Solution:
(a) Cartesian coordinate of point B are x = 3 cos (– 45°) = 2.12, y = 3 sin (– 45°) = –
2.12
z=2 i.e., B (2.12, – 2.12, 2)
A R
= r rB = (3Ux + 4 U y – 2Uz) – (2.12Ux – 2.12Uy + 2Uz)
Let BRA B A = A0.88Ux + 6.12Uy – 4U z = A U + A U + A z U z
A = A · U = 0.88Ux · U + 6.12Uy · U – 4U z · U
= 0.88 cos + 6.12 sin
A = A · U = 0.88Ux · U + 6.12Uy · U – 4U z · U
= 0.88 sin + 6.12 cos
A z = A · U z = 0.88Ux · U z + 6.12Uy · U z – 4U z · U z = – 4
A = R B A = (0.88 cos + 6.12 sin )U + (0.88 sin + 6.12 cos )U – 4U z
Substituting coordinate of point B in the above vector we have R B A
U AB = R AB 5.423U 2.969U 4U z
| R A B | [( 5.423) ( 2.969)2 (4)2 ]1/ 2
2
+
rj 20 yjU . Specify the locus of all points at which (a) F
x= 0 (b) F y= 0 (c) | F z| = 1.
lx 2
y2 Q z
Solution:
(a) F = F x U x + F y U y + F z Uz
F x = 4 (x + y) sin z = 0
x + y = 0 (or) sin z = 0
y = – x (or) z = 0, ± ,
± 2 ……..
(b) y = – x represents a plane
and z = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3
represents
20 planes
(c) Fz =
F y = –x (x2 +
2
y2y) = 0
y = – x20
2. It represents a
| F z |parabolic
= =1
cylinder
x2 y2
x2 + y2 = 20
Solution:
(b) R p q = rq rp = (– 3, 1, 5) – (0, 2, 4) = (– 3, – 1, 1)
i.e., R p q = – 3ux – u y + uz
22 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
(c)Since R p q is the distance vector from P to Q the distance between P and Q is the
10
Example 1.20: Express vector B r ur r cos u u in Cartesian coordinates and
also find B(– 3, 4, 0).
Solution:
Using the concept to convert spherical coordinated to cylindrical coordinates it can be
written as
10
Bx = sin cos + r cos2 cos – sin
r
10
By = sin sin + r cos 2 sin – cos
r
10
B z = r cos + r cos sin
1 x2 y2
But r = x 2 y2 z 2 , y
and = tan1 x
= tan z
x 2 y2 z z
Hence, sin = ;
r 2 2 2
cos = r 2
x y z x y2 z2
y x
y x
sin = ; cos =
x 2 y2 x 2 y2
Substituting all the above equations in the basic equation it yields,
10 x2 y2
x 2 y2 z2 z2 x y
Bx = (x y z )
2 2 2
(xx 2 y2 z2 ) x 2 y2 x 2 y2 x2 y2
= 10x xz2
(x2 y 2 z2 )
y
10 x 2 y2 2 2 2 z2 y x
(x 2 y y 2 )(x2 2x y2 2y z2 )z2 x 2 y2
By = x 2 y2 (x y z ) x 2 y2 x 2 y2
(x2 y 2 z2 )
10 y yz2
=
(x y 2 z2 )
2
x
(x 2 y 2 ) (x2 y 2 z2 ) x 2 y2
VECTOR ANALYSIS 23
10z z x 2 y2
Bz =
(x2 y 2 z2 ) (x2 y 2 z2 )
30 4
B x = 25 0 5 2
40 3
B y = 25 0 5 1
Bz = 0 – 0 = 0
Thus it can be written as B = – 2ux + uy .
1
Example 1.21: Given a vector field D = r sin u r– sin cos u + r 2u . Determine
r
(a) D at P(10, 150°, 330°) (b) the component of D tangential to the spherical surface r = 10 at P
(c) a unit vector at P perpendicular to D and tangential to the cone = 150°
Solution:
(a) At P, r = 10, = 150°, = 330°.
1
Hence D = 10 sin 330°u r – sin 150° cos 330° u + 100u = (– 5, 0.043,100)
10
Dt is tangential to a given surface and Dn is normal to it. In this case, since ur is normal to the
surface r = 10. i.e., D n = r sin ur = – 5ur
Hence D t = D – D n = 0.043u + 100u
(c)A vector at P perpendicular to D and tangential to the cone = 150° is the same as
ur D and
the vector perpendicular to both u u . u
Hence D × u = 5 0.043 100
0 1 0
= – 100ur – 5u
100ur 5u
A unit vector along this is given by u = = – 0.9988ur – 0.0499u
1002 52
Example 1.22: Show that the cosines of the angle between the vectors A and B is given
by the sum of the products of their direction cosines.
Solution:
Let cos 1, cos 1, cos 1 be the direction cosines of A and cos 2, cos 2, cos 2 be the
direction cosines of B, then A = A x u x + A y u y + Azuz
r A A Az
= A x2 A y2 A z2 uy uz
y jj x
A 2x A 2y A 2z
ux
y
A 2x A 2y A 2z A 2x A 2y A 2z
jj
l Q
24 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
or
A = | A | [cos 1ux + cos 1uy + cos 1uz]
where
A = Ax2 Ay2 Az2
A x = A cos 1; A y = A cos 1; A z = A cos 1;
Similarly B = | B | [cos 1ux + cos 1uy + cos 1uz]
A . B = | A B | cos
= | A B vectors
where is the angle between | [cos A1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2]
andB
cos = cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2
= cos–1[cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2 + cos 1 cos 2]
Example 1.23: Transform the vector 4ux –2uy – 4uz into spherical coordinates at a point
P(x = – 2, y = – 3, z = 4).
Solution:
Given the vector 4ux – 2uy – 4uz and it is to be transformed into spherical coordinates at
point P(x = – 2, y = – 3, z = 4). The parameters in spherical system can be obtained as follows:
In this case y and x are both negative, so the point is in 3rd quadrant.
i.e., = – 180° + 56.31° = – 123.69°
cos = 0.7428; sin = 0.6695; cos = – 0.5547; sin = – 0.8321
The components of the vector in r, and direction need to be found out in order to
convert the vector into spherical coordinates
A r = A · u r = (4ux – 2uy – 4uz) · ur
= 4 sin cos – 2 sin sin – 4 cos
= – 3.342
A = A · u = (4ux – 2uy – 4uz) · u
= 4 cos cos – 2 cos cos – 4 sin
= 2.266
A = A · u = (4ux – 2uy – 4uz) · u
= – 4 sin – 2 cos
= 4.4378
So, the vector in spherical coordinates can be written as
A (r, , ) = – 3.342ur + 2.266u + 4.4378u
two
vectors
their dot product is A · B =| B | cos where
A | |
/qis the angle between
A and B and the cross product of A and B is defined as A × B = | A | | B | sin un ,
where u n is the unit vector normal to plane containing A and B .
3. Define unit vectors in rectangular coordinate system.
In rectangular coordinate system the unit vector u x , u y and uz are in x, y, and z-coordinate
directions. And always they are mutually perpendicular each other.
4. Define unit vectors in cylindrical coordinate system.
In cylindrical coordinate system u is the unit vector along -coordinate axis, which is
measured radially outward from z-axis. The u is unit angle in coordinate axis directions,
which is measured from positive x-axis in positive director of angle measurement. And uz
is the unit vector in z-coordinate axis direction, which is measured as usual like in
rectangular coordinate system. Thus u, u and uz are three unit vectors in cylindrical
coordinate system, which are always mutually perpendicular to each other.
5. Define unit vectors in spherical coordinate system.
In spherical coordinate system ur , u and u are the three unit vectors which are always
perpendicular each other. Here, u r is the unit vector r-axis, which is measured always
radially outward from the point of origin. u is already defined in cylindrical coordinate
system and u is unit angle measured from positive z-axis in anti clock wise direction.
6. What do you mean by “gradient”?
Gradient is the concept of rate of change of a scalar in the given field.
7. What
do you mean by “divergence”?
The net out flow of flux per unit volume is called as the divergence. Divergence of vector
A is defined as · A (Divergence of A ) or div A . From a charged body there is
continuous out flow of flux, like sunrays come out continuously from sun. These are the
examples of positive divergence, since there is a net out flow. If a vaccum tube is
broken there is inflow of air. This is an example of negative divergence
since inflow
is
negative outflow.
8. What is concept of “curl”?
(curl of A) or Cu rlA . Consider wind whirl pool which is upward. If a piece of paper is
released here, it rotates and finally moves up ward. This is an exampleof curl.
2
9. What is concept of laplacian?
10. Laplacian
State the condition
is of scalar for
andthe vector
vector typetoLaplacian
be solenoid.
(scalar) is defined as divergence of
gradient of scalar and is mathematically represented as 2 = . ,where ‘’ is scalar.
The vector is said | P | to be solenoid · P = 0 if and is irrotational if × P = 0.
And Laplacian vector is defined as follows: A = grad (div A ) – curl A .
26 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
MULTIPLE CHOICES
1. The electric charges
1. are conserved 2. are quantized
3. exist in pairs 4. have a circular field around it
In the above statements, the following are true
(a) 1 only (b) 1, 2
(c) 1, 4 (d) 1, 2, 3
2. The electric charge is transferred from one body to another insulated metal body only
when
1. the medium is vaccum 2. the medium is dry air
3. the medium is any dielectric
In the above, the true statements are
(a) 1 (b) 2, 3
(c) 1, 2, 3 (d) 1, 3
3. A body can be charged when it is
1. an insulator 2. an insulated metal body
3. held in hand 4. charged in humid environment
The false statements are
(a) 1, 2 (b) 3
(c) 3, 4 (d) 1, 4
4. Between a hollow and solid metal sphere, charges reside
(a) on the outer surface in both
(b) on outer surface in hollow and throughout in solid
(c) throughout in both (d) none
5. There is a charged metal sphere and thin circular plate. Distribution of charge around
the surface is
(a) uniform in both
(b) uniform in sphere and bulging at the edges in plate
(c) non-uniform in both
(d) Uniform in circular plate and non-uniform in sphere
6. A lighting conductor on top of a building is made into a pointed spike because
(a) rain drops may not collect
(b) dust particles may not accumulate
(c) charge per unit area becomes very high for lightning to discharge
(d) as decoration
7. A charged plate is touched by a metal rod standing on a wooden platform
(a) the plate is discharged completely
(b) the charge is unaffected in the plate
(c) the charge is transferred to the metal rod
(d) none
VECTOR ANALYSIS 27
8. A point charge of + 3.0 × 10–6 coulomb is 12 cm from a second point charge of –1.5 × 10–6
coulomb. The magnitude and direction of the force on each charge is
(a) 2 nt directed away from each other
(b) 2.81 nt directed towards each other
(c) 2.81 nt directed away from each other
(d) 1.5 nt towards each other
9. A charged rod attracts bits of uncharged paper. After touching the rod, they
jump violently away from it because
(a) there is no place in the rod for all bits
(b) the charged rod gives a shock to the bits of paper
(c) on contact with the rod, the bits of paper acquire the same charge as the rod and are
repelled
(d) none
10. When charges are applied to a gold leaf electroscope
(a) the leaves converge for positive charges
(b) the leaves remain stationary
(c) the leaves diverge for negative charges
(d) the leaves diverge for both positive and negative charges
11. A conductor and an insulator are heated;
(a) conductivity increases and insulator unaffected
(b) insulating power increases while conducting power remains same
(c) insulator decreases in insulating power and conductor decreases in conducting power
(d) both are unaffected
12. Match the following:
(a) Mercury 1. Insulator
(b) Cotton 2. Conductor
(c) Sulphur 3. Partial conductor
(d) Ivory 4. Partial insulator
13. The unit of 0, the permittivity of free space is
(a) (coulomb)2 / newton-metre2 (b) (coulomb)2 joule-metre
(c) farad / metre (d) none correct
14. Two positive charges 10 coulomb and 15 coulomb are separated by a distance of 10
cms with a dielectric of alcohol. Find the force between them. r of alcohol is 20.
(a) 180 N (b) 135 N y
(c) 9 N (d) 6.75 N
15. F12 and F13 are two forces of 2 and 3 newtons. F13 makes
an angle 30° with normal as shown in Fig.1.9. The force q1 x
acting in x-direction is F12
(a) 5 N (b) 3.5 N
30°
(c) 1 N (d) –1 N
F13
Fig. 1.9
28 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a scalar quantity? Give some examples of scalars.
2. What is a vector quantity? Give some examples of vectors.
3. What do we mean when we say that two vectors are equal?
4. What is the significance of zero vector and is vector addition “closed”?
5. Can the dot product be negative? If yes, what must be the condition?
6. Can you reason why the dot product of two vectors is known as scalar product?
7. How can you determine if two vectors are dependent or independent?
30 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. (a) Express u in spherical components and variables (b) Express u r in cylindrical
components and variables.
2. Given the vector in Cartesian coordinate that extends from P(r = 4, = 20°, = 10°) to
Q(r = 7, = 120°, = 75°) (a) Give the vector in spherical coordinate at M(x = 5, y = 1, z
= 2) that extends to N(2,4,6) (b) How far is it from A(r = 110, = 30°, = 60°) to
B(r = 30, = 75°, = 125°)?
3. A closed surface is defined in spherical coordinates by 3 < r < 5, 0.1 < < 0.3 , 1.2 <
< 1.6 (a) Find the volume enclosed (b) Find the distance from P1(r = 3, = 0.1 ,
= 1.2 ,) to P 2 (r = 5, = 0.3 , = 1.6 ) (c) Find total surface area.
VECTOR ANALYSIS 31
4. Using the coordinate system named, give the vector of point A(2, – 1, – 3) that extends to
B(1, 3, 4) (a) Cartesian (b) Cylindrical (c) Spherical.
5.
Find the value of B z such that the angle between the vector A = 2 U x + U y + 4U z and
B = – 2 U x – 1 U y + B z U z is 45°.
6.
Vector A = 3 U x + 4 U y – 5U z and B = – 6 U x + 2 U y + 4U z extend out from the origin. Find
(a)the angle between A and B (b) the distance between the tips of vector (c) the unit vector
normal to plane containing A and B (d) the area of parallelogram which A and
B are adjacent sides?
7. Give the vector in Cartesian coordinates that extends from P ( = 4, = 10°, z = 1) to Q
( = 7, = 75°, z = 4) (a) Give the vector in cylindrical coordinates at M(r = 5, y = 1, z = 2)
that extends to N(2,4, 6)? (b) How far is it from A(110, 60°, – 20) to B (30, 125°, 10)?
8. Find in cylindrical components (a) A unit vector P ( = 5, = 53.13°, z = – 2) in director
of E = z cos U – z sin U + a U z at P.
9. Given the three points M(6, 2, – 3), N(– 2, 3, 0) and P(– 4, 6, 5) find (a) the area of
triangle they define (b) A unit vector perpendicular to this triangular surface (c) a unit
vector bisecting the interior angle of triangle at M.
10. Three points P 1 , P2 and P 3 are given by (2, 3, – 2), (5, 8, 3) and (7, 6, 2) respectively.
Obtain (a) the vector drawn from P 1 to P 2 (b) the unit vector along the line from P 1 to P3 .