MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

MOBILE IP
DR. KULOTHUGAN.K,ASST. PROF
ANNA UNIVERSITY , CHENNAI-25
 COMPUTERS FOR THE NEXT DECADES?

• Computers are integrated (95% embedded systems!)

• small, cheap, portable, replaceable - no more separate devices

• Technology is in the background

• computer are aware of their environment and adapt (“location awareness”)
• computer recognize the location of the user and react appropriately (e.g., call
forwarding, fax forwarding, “context awareness”))

• Advances in technology
• more computing power in smaller devices
• flat, lightweight displays with low power consumption
• new user interfaces due to small dimensions
• more bandwidth per cubic meter
• multiple wireless interfaces: wireless LANs, wireless WANs, regional wireless
telecommunication networks etc. („overlay networks“)

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 2

 INTRODUCTION

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 3

 MOBILE COMMUNICATION

• Two aspects of mobility:

• user mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with anyone”
• device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network
• Wireless vs. mobile Examples
  stationary computer
  notebook in a hotel
  wireless LANs in historic buildings
  Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
• The demand for mobile communication creates the need for integration of
wireless networks into existing fixed networks:
• local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11
• Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
• wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN, VoIP over WLAN and
POTS

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 4

 APPLICATIONS

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 5

 APPLICATIONS I

• Vehicles
• transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via DAB/DVB-T
• personal communication using GSM/UMTS/LTE
• position via GPS
• local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance
system, redundancy
• vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in
advance for maintenance

• Emergencies
• early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first
diagnosis
• replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes, fire
etc.
• crisis, war, ...

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 6

 TYPICAL APPLICATION: ROAD TRAFFIC

UMTS, WLAN,
DAB, DVB, GSM, c
ho
cdma2000, TETRA, ... ad

Personal Travel Assistant,

PDA, Laptop,
GSM, UMTS, WLAN,
Bluetooth, ...

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 7

 MOBILE AND WIRELESS SERVICES –
ALWAYS BEST CONNECTED
LAN
100 Mbit/s,
WLAN
UMTS, GSM 54 Mbit/s

GSM/GPRS 53 kbit/s 115 kbit/s

Bluetooth 500 kbit/s
DSL/ WLAN
3 Mbit/s

UMTS
2 Mbit/s

GSM/EDGE 384 kbit/s,

DSL/WLAN 3 Mbit/s
UMTS, GSM
GSM 115 kbit/s, 384 kbit/s
WLAN 11 Mbit/s

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 8

 APPLICATIONS II

• Traveling salesmen
• direct access to customer files stored in a central location
• consistent databases for all agents
• mobile office
• Replacement of fixed networks
• remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities
• flexibility for trade shows
• LANs in historic buildings
• Entertainment, education, ...
• outdoor Internet access
• intelligent travel guide with up-to-date
location dependent information History

• ad-hoc networks for Info

multi user games

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 9

 LOCATION DEPENDENT SERVICES

• Location aware services

• what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local
environment
• Follow-on services
• automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the
current location
• Information services
• “push”: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
• “pull”: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cheese Cake?
• Support services
• caches, intermediate results, state information etc. “follow” the mobile
device through the fixed network
• Privacy
• who should gain knowledge about the location

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 10

 MOBILE DEVICES
Pager PDA
Laptop/Notebook
• receive only • graphical displays
• fully functional
• tiny displays • character recognition
• simple text • standard applications
• simplified WWW
messages
Sensors,
embedded
controllers

Smartphone
• tiny keyboard
Mobile phones • simple versions
• voice, data of standard applications
• simple graphical displays

• performance

• No clear separation between device types possible

• (e.g. smart phones, embedded PCs, …)

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 11

 EFFECTS OF DEVICE PORTABILITY

• Power consumption
• limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due to limited
battery capacity
• CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f
• C: internal capacity, reduced by integration
• V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
• f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally
• Loss of data
• higher probability, has to be included in advance into the design (e.g.,
defects, theft)
• Limited user interfaces
• compromise between size of fingers and portability
• integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols
• Limited memory (always in relation to e.g. PCs)
• limited usage of mass memories with moving parts
• flash-memory or ? as alternative

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 12

 WIRELESS NETWORKS IN COMPARISON TO
FIXED NETWORKS
• Higher loss-rates due to interference
• emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
• Restrictive regulations of frequencies
• frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied
• Lower transmission rates
• local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 53kbit/s with GSM/GPRS or about 150
kbit/s using EDGE – soon Mbit/s with LTE
• Higher delays, higher jitter
• connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred milliseconds
for other wireless systems – soon in ms range with LTE
• Lower security, simpler active attacking
• radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus attracting
calls from mobile phones
• Always shared medium
• secure access mechanisms important

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 13

 LAYERED MODEL

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 14

SIMPLE REFERENCE MODEL USED HERE

Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 15

INFLUENCE OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION
TO THE LAYER MODEL

service location
Application layer new/adaptive applications
multimedia

congestion/flow control
Transport layer quality of service

Network layer addressing, routing

device location
hand-over
authentication

media access/control
Data link layer multiplexing
encryption

modulation
interference
Physical layer attenuation
frequency

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 16

 MOBILE IP
MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 17

 MOBILE IP
• Mobile IP adds mobility support to the Internet network layer protocol IP.
• The Internet started at a time when no-one had a concept of mobile computers.
• The Internet of today lacks mechanisms for the support of users traveling through the
world.
• IP is the common base for thousands of applications and runs over dozens of different
networks; this is the reason for supporting mobility at the IP layer.
• Motivation for Mobile IP:
• Routing
• based on IP destination address, network prefix determines physical subnet
• Change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct
address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 18

 MOBILE IP

• Create specific routes to end-systems – mobile nodes?

• change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination
• does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location
• Changing the IP address?
• adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
• almost impossible to find a mobile host, DNS has not been built for frequent updates
• TCP connection break

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 19

 MOBILE IP

• Requirements to Mobile IP:

• Transparency
• mobile end-systems keep their IP address
• continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
• point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
• Compatibility
• support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP does
• no changes to current end-systems and routers required
• Mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 20

 MOBILE IP

• Security
• authentication of all registration messages
• Efficiency and scalability
• only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically
via a low bandwidth radio link)
• world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 21

 REAL-LIFE SOLUTION

• Take up the analogy of you moving from one apartment to

another. What do you do?
• Leave a forwarding address with your old post-office
• The old post-office forwards mail to your new post-office, which then
delivers it to you

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 22

 MOBILE IP - DEFINITION

• “Mobile IP (MIP) is a modification to IP that allows nodes to

continue to receive datagrams no matter where they happen to
be attached to the Internet”

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 23

 MOBILE IP

• Terminology:
• Mobile Node (MN)
• system (node) that can change the point of connection to the network without
changing its IP address
• Home Agent (HA)
• system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
• registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
• Foreign Agent (FA)
• system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
• forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router of the
MN

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 24

 MOBILE IP (VI)

• Care-of Address (COA)

• address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
• actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
• can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
• Correspondent Node (CN)
• communication partner

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 25

 MOBILE IP IN DETAIL …

• Combination of 3 separable mechanisms:

• Discovering the care-of address
• Registering the care-of address
• Tunneling to the care-of address

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 26

 MOBILE IP IN DETAIL

MIPv4 MIPv6
MN FA HA CN MN FA HA CN

1 -- CoA and HA Discovery -- 1 -- CoA and HA Discovery --

1. CoA Discovery 1. CoA Discovery
2 2
2. HA Discovery Request 2. HA Discovery Request
3 3
3. HA Discovery Reply 3. HA Discovery Reply

-- Registration Procedure -- -- Registration Procedure --

4. HA Registration through FA 4 4. HA Registration BU
4
5 5. HA Registration Ack. 5 5. HA Registration BU Ack.

-- MN is Registered with HA -- -- MN is Registered with HA --

-- CN starts communication with MN -- -- CN starts communication with MN --

6 6. Data Packet 6
6. Data Packet
7. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
8. Tunneled Data 7 7. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
7
8
8a 8
9 8a Detunnelled Data
8. Tunneled Data
9. Binding Update 9
9. Binding Update
10. IP-in-IP tunneling
10
10a 10a. Detunnelled Data 10. Binding Ack
10

-- MN starts communication with CN -- -- MN starts communication with CN --

-- Discovery and Registration as above -- -- Discovery and Registration as above --
6a 6a
6a. Data Packet 6a. Data Packet

-- Signals 6-10a as above -- -- Signals 6-10 as above --

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 27

 MOBILE IP IN DETAIL

MIPv4 MIPv6
MN FA HA CN MN FA HA CN

1 -- CoA and HA Discovery -- 1 -- CoA and HA Discovery --

1. CoA Discovery 1. CoA Discovery
2 2
2. HA Discovery Request 2. HA Discovery Request
3 3
3. HA Discovery Reply 3. HA Discovery Reply

-- Registration Procedure -- -- Registration Procedure --

4. HA Registration through FA 4 4. HA Registration BU
4
5 5. HA Registration Ack. 5 5. HA Registration BU Ack.

-- MN is Registered with HA -- -- MN is Registered with HA --

-- CN starts communication with MN -- -- CN starts communication with MN --

6 6. Data Packet 6
6. Data Packet
7. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
8. Tunneled Data 7 7. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
7
8
8a 8
9 8a Detunnelled Data
8. Tunneled Data
9. Binding Update 9
9. Binding Update
10. IP-in-IP tunneling
10
10a 10a. Detunnelled Data 10. Binding Ack
10

-- MN starts communication with CN -- -- MN starts communication with CN --

-- Discovery and Registration as above -- -- Discovery and Registration as above --
6a 6a
6a. Data Packet 6a. Data Packet

-- Signals 6-10a as above -- -- Signals 6-10 as above --

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 28

 DISCOVERING THE CARE-OF ADDRESS
• Discovery process built on top of an existing standard
protocol: router advertisements
• Router advertisements extended to carry available care-of
addresses called: agent advertisements
• Foreign agents (and home agents) send agent advertisements
periodically
• A mobile host can choose not to wait for an advertisement,
and issue a solicitation message

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 29

 AGENT ADVERTISEMENTS

• Foreign agents send advertisements to advertise available

care-of addresses
• Home agents send advertisements to make themselves known
• Mobile hosts can issue agent solicitations to actively seek
information
• If mobile host has not heard from a foreign agent its current
care-of address belongs to, it seeks for another care-of address

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 30

 REGISTERING THE CARE-OF ADDRESS

• Once mobile host receives care-of address, it registers it with

the home agent
• A registration request is first sent to the home agent (through
the foreign agent)
• Home agent then approves the request and sends a registration
reply back to the mobile host
• Security?

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 31

 REGISTRATION ILLUSTRATION

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 32

 HOME AGENT DISCOVERY

• If the mobile host is unable to communicate with the home

agent, a home agent discovery message is used
• The message is sent as a broadcast to the home agents in the
home network

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 33

 TUNNELING TO THE CARE-OF ADDRESS
• When home agent receives packets addressed to mobile host,
it forwards packets to the care-of address
• How does it forward it? - encapsulation
• The default encapsulation mechanism that must be supported
by all mobility agents using mobile IP is IP-within-IP
• Using IP-within-IP, home agent inserts a new IP header in
front of the IP header of any datagram

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 34

 TUNNELING (CONTD.)

• Destination address set to the care-of address

• Source address set to the home agent’s address
• After stripping out the first header, IP processes the packet
again

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 35

 TUNNELING ILLUSTRATION

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 36

 MOBILE IP

• Example network

HA
MN

router
home network
Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 37
 MOBILE IP

• Data transfer to the mobile system

HA
2 MN

home network receiver

Internet 3
FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN
by encapsulation
05/08/24 FA forwards the packet to the MN 38
Mobile Network3.Layer
sender
 MOBILE IP

• Data transfer from the mobile system

HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN
FA works as default router
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 39
receiver
 MOBILE IP

• Optimization of packet forwarding:

• Triangular routing
• sender sends all packets via HA to MN
• higher latency and network load
• Solutions – optimization
• HA informs a sender about the location of MN
• sender learns the current location of MN
• direct tunneling to this location
• big security problems!

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 40

 MOBILE IP

• Change of FA
• Packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost
• new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA forwards remaining packets to
new FA
• this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 41

 MOBILE IP

• Change of the foreign agent with the optimized mobile IP

CN HA FAold FAnew MN
request
update
ACK
data data
MN changes
registration registration location
update
data ACK
data data
warning
update
ACK
data
data
t
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 42
 MOBILE IP
 Reverse tunneling:

HA
2
MN

home network sender

1
Internet

FA foreign
network

1. MN sends to FA
3 2. FA tunnels packets to HA
CN by encapsulation
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
05/08/24 receiver Mobile Network Layer 43
 MOBILE IP

• Mobile IP with reverse tunneling

• Router accept often only “topological correct“ addresses (firewall!)
• a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct
• furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home network correct, but
MN is to far away from the receiver)
• Reverse tunneling does not solve
• problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security
mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)
• optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA
to a sender (double triangular routing)
• The standard is backwards compatible
• the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current implementations
without these extensions
• Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 44

 MOBILE IP IN DETAIL

05/08/24
Mobile Network Layer 45
[modified from Ericsson Tech. Rep. 11/0362-FCB, Dec
 ROUTE OPTIMIZATIONS

• Enable direct notification of the corresponding host

• Direct tunneling from the corresponding host to the mobile
host
• Binding cache maintained at corresponding host

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 46

 ROUTE OPTIMIZATIONS (CONTD.)

• 4 types of messages
• Binding update
• Binding request
• Binding warning
• Binding acknowledge

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 47

 BINDING UPDATE

• When a home agent receives a packet to be tunneled to a

mobile host, it sends a binding update message to the
corresponding host
• When a home agent receives a binding request message, it
replies with a binding update message
• Also used in the the smooth-handoffs optimization

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 48

 BINDING UPDATE (CONTD.)

• Corresponding host caches binding and uses it for tunneling

subsequent packets
• Lifetime of binding?
• Corresponding host that perceives a near-expiry can choose to
ask for a binding confirmation using the binding request
message
• Home agent can choose to ask for an acknowledgement to
which a corresponding host has to reply with a binding ack
message

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 49

 BINDING WARNING

• When a foreign agent receives a tunneled message, but sees no

visitor entry for the mobile host, it generates a binding
warning message to the appropriate home agent
• When a home agent receives a warning, it issues an update
message to the corresponding host
• What if the foreign agent does not have the home agent
address (why?) ?

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 50

 BINDING UPDATE AND WARNING

Home Agent

BU BW
BR
BA
Corresponding Host Foreign Agent
BW

Mobile Host

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 51

 MOBILE IP AND IPV6

• Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
• security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is included
• COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every
node has address autoconfiguration
• no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement which can be
used instead of the special agent advertisement; addresses are always co-located
• MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this case
(automatic path optimization)
• „soft“ hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is supported
• MN sends the new COA to its old router
• the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the new
COA
• authentication is always granted

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 52

 PROBLEMS WITH MOBILE IP

• Security
• authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another
organization
• no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized in the
Internet
• patent and export restrictions
• Firewalls
• typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are
needed (such as reverse tunneling)
• QoS
• many new reservations in case of RSVP
• tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the
QoS
• Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of current research and discussions!

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 53

 SECURITY IN MOBILE IP

• Security requirements (Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol, RFC

1825)
• Integrity
any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected by the receiver
• Authentication
sender address is really the address of the sender and all data received is really data
sent by this sender
• Confidentiality
only sender and receiver can read the data
• Non-Repudiation
sender cannot deny sending of data
• Traffic Analysis
creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible
• Replay Protection
receivers can detect replay of messages

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 54

 IP MICRO-MOBILITY SUPPORT

• Micro-mobility support:
• Efficient local handover inside a foreign domain
without involving a home agent
• Reduces control traffic on backbone
• Especially needed in case of route optimization

• Example approaches:
• Cellular IP
• HAWAII
• Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP)

• Important criteria:
Security Efficiency, Scalability, Transparency, Manageability
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 55
 DHCP
DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 56

 DHCP: DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION
PROTOCOL
• Application
• simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
• supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server address,
domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
• enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be used to
acquire a COA for Mobile IP
• Client/Server-Model
• the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be via a DHCP
relay)

DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPDISCOVER
server client

client relay

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 57

 DHCP - PROTOCOL MECHANISMS

server client server

initialization
(not selected) (selected)
DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER
determine the determine the
configuration configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER
collection of replies
time

selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST
confirmation of
(reject) (options)
configuration
DHCPACK
initialization completed

release
DHCPRELEASE delete context
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 58
 DHCP CHARACTERISTICS

• Server
• several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet
standardized (i.e., manual configuration)
• Renewal of configurations
• IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
• Options
• available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol)
timeserver, SLP (service location protocol) directory, DNS (domain
name system)

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 59

ADHOC ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
 OUTLINE

• Challenges
• Design Goals Specified by MANET (for now…)
• Types of Routing
• Protocols in Detail

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 61

 MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS

• Standard Mobile IP needs an infrastructure

• Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network
• DNS, routing etc. are not designed for mobility
• Sometimes there is no infrastructure!
• remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas
• cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure!
• Main topic: routing
• no default router available
• every node should be able to forward

A B C
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 62
 SOLUTION: WIRELESS AD-HOC NETWORKS

• Network without infrastructure

• Use components of participants for networking

• Examples
• Single-hop: All partners max. one hop apart
• Bluetooth piconet, PDAs in a room,
gaming devices…
• Multi-hop: Cover larger distances,
circumvent obstacles
• Bluetooth scatternet, TETRA police network,
car-to-car networks…

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 63

 MANET: MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKING

Mobile
Router
Manet
Mobile
Devices
Mobile IP,
DHCP
Fixed
Network
Router End system

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 64

 PROBLEM NO. 1: ROUTING
• Highly dynamic network topology
• Device mobility plus varying channel quality
• Separation and merging of networks possible
• Asymmetric connections possible N7 N6
N 6
N7
N1 N1
N2 N3
N3 N2

N4 N4
N5 N5

time = t1 time = t2

good link
weak link

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 65

TRADITIONAL ROUTING ALGORITHMS

• Distance Vector
• periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain
information about who can be reached at what distance
• selection of the shortest path if several paths available
• Link State
• periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links
• router get a complete picture of the network
• Example
• ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing
• every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality
• updating of tables also by reception of packets
• routing problems solved with limited flooding

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 66

 ROUTING IN AD-HOC NETWORKS

• THE big topic in many research projects

• Far more than 50 different proposals exist
• The most simplest one: Flooding!

• Reasons
• Classical approaches from fixed networks fail
• Very slow convergence, large overhead
• High dynamicity, low bandwidth, low computing power

• Metrics for routing

• Minimal
• Number of nodes, loss rate, delay, congestion, interference …
• Maximal
• Stability of the logical network, battery run-time, time of connectivity …

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 67

 PROBLEMS OF TRADITIONAL ROUTING
ALGORITHMS

• Dynamic of the topology

• frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants

• Limited performance of mobile systems

• periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to
the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize
• limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the
exchange of routing information
• links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent
transmission quality

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 68

 CHALLENGES

• Dynamic Topologies
• Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity links
• Energy-constrained
• Limited Physical security
• Scalability

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 69

 TYPES OF ROUTING
• Flat Proactive Routing
• Link state Fish-Eye Routing, GSR, OLSR.
• Table driven: Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV), WRP)
• On-Demand or Reactive Routing
• Ad hoc On-demand Distant Vector (AODV)
• Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• Hybrid Schemes
• Zone Routing ZRP, SHARP (proactive near, reactive long distance)
• Safari (reactive near, proactive long distance)
• Geographical Routing
• Hierarchical: One or many levels of hierarchy
• Routing with dynamic address
• Dynamic Address RouTing (DART), L+

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 70

 PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS

• Proactive: maintain routing information independently of need

for communication
• Update messages send throughout the network periodically or
when network topology changes.
• Low latency, suitable for real-time traffic
• Bandwidth might get wasted due to periodic updates
• They maintain O(N) state per node, N = #nodes

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 71

 ON-DEMAND OR REACTIVE ROUTING

• Reactive: discover route only when you need it

• Saves energy and bandwidth during inactivity
• Can be bursty -> congestion during high activity
• Significant delay might occur as a result of route discovery
• Good for light loads, collapse in large loads

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 72

 HYBRID ROUTING

• Proactive for neighborhood, Reactive for far away (Zone

Routing Protocol, Haas group)
• Proactive for long distance, Reactive for neighborhood
(Safari)
• Attempts to strike balance between the two

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 73

 HIERARCHICAL ROUTING

• Nodes are organized in clusters

• Cluster head “controls” cluster
• Trade off
• Overhead and confusion for leader election
• Scalability: intra-cluster vs intercluster
• One or Multiple levels of hierarchy

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 74

 GEOGRAPHICAL ROUTING

• Nodes know their geo coordinates (GPS)

• Route to move packet closer to end point
• Protocols DREAM, GPSR, LAR
• Propagate geo info by flooding (decrease frequency for long
distances)
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 75
 DYNAMIC ROUTING: A NEW APPROACH

• DART Ericsson et al., L+ Morris et al

• Goal: can we enforce address aggregation
• But: nodes are moving
• Then: address should change

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 76

 HIERARCHICAL ROUTING: BOUNDS

• Cluster nodes, and route between and within clusters

• Location management: finding where
• Routing finding how to get there
• Multiple levels: log(N) levels
• Location Mgm: Each nodes stores O(N) locations
• Routing overhead: O(log^3N)
• Dominating factor: location management and not the routing
• Location mgmt handoff: O(log^2N)

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 77

 PROACTIVE: DSDV - DESTINATION-
SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR
ALGORITHM
• Based on Bellman Ford algorithm
• Exchange of routing tables
• Routing table: the way to the destination, cost
• Every node knows “where” everybody else is
• Thus routing table O(N)
• Each node advertises its position
• Sequence number to avoid loops
• Maintain fresh routes

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 78

 DSDV DETAILS

• Routes are broadcasted from the “receiver”

• Nodes announce their presence: advertisements
• Each broadcast has
• Destination address: originator
• No of hops
• Sequence number of broadcast
• The route with the most recent sequence is used

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 79

 REACTIVE: AD-HOC ON-DEMAND
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)

• By Perkins and Royer

• Sender tries to find destination:
• broadcasts a Route Request Packet (RREQ).
• Nodes maintain route cache and use destination sequence
number for each route entry
• State is installed at nodes per destination
• Does nothing when connection between end points is still
valid
• When route fails
• Local recovery
• Sender repeats a Route Discovery

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 80

 ROUTE DISCOVERY IN AODV 1

7
5

Source 1
3
8 Destination

6
4

Propagation of Route Request (RREQ) packet

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 81
 ROUTE DISCOVERY IN AODV 2

7
5

Source 1
3
8 Destination

6
4

Path taken by Route Reply (RREP) packet

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 82
 IN CASE OF BROKEN LINKS…

• Node monitors the link status of next hop in active routes

• Route Error packets (RERR) is used to notify other nodes if
link is broken
• Nodes remove corresponding route entry after hearing RERR

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 83

 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR)

• Two mechanisms: Route Maintenance and Route Discovery

• Route Discovery mechanism is similar to the one in AODV
but with source routing instead
• Nodes maintain route caches
• Entries in route caches are updated as nodes learn new routes.
• Packet send carries complete, ordered list of nodes through
which packet will pass

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 84

 WHEN SENDING PACKETS

• Sender checks its route cache, if route exists, sender constructs

a source route in the packet’s header
• If route expires or does not exist, sender initiates the Route
Discovery Mechanism

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 85

 ROUTE DISCOVERY 1 (DSR)

2 <1,2>
<1>
7 <1,3,5,7>
<1,3> 5
<1,3,5>
<1>
Source 1
3
8 Destination

<1>
<1,4,6>
6
4
<1,4>

Building Record Route during Route Discovery

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 86
 ROUTE DISCOVERY 2 (DSR)

7
5

Source 1 Destination
3
8

<1,4,6>
<1,4,6>
6
4
<1,4,6>

Propagation of Route Reply with the Route Record

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 87
 ROUTE MAINTENANCE

• Two types of packets used: Route Error Packet and

Acknowledgement
• If transmission error is detected at data link layer, Route Error
Packet is generated and send to the original sender of the
packet.
• The node removes the hop is error from its route cache when a
Route Error packet is received
• ACKs are used to verify the correction of the route links.

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 88

 CLUSTERING OF AD-HOC NETWORKS

Internet
Base station Cluster head

Cluster
Super cluster
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 89
 THE ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

• Hybrid Scheme
• Proactively maintains routes within a local region (routing
zone)
• Also a globally reactive route query/reply mechanism
available
• Consists of 3 separate protocols
• Protocols patented by Cornell University!

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 90

 INTRAZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL

• Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP) used to proactively

maintain routes in the zone.
• Each node maintains its own routing zone
• Neighbors are discovered by either MAC protocols or
Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP)
• When global search is needed, route queries are guided by
IARP via bordercasting

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 91

 INTERZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL

• Adapts existing reactive routing protocols

• Route Query packet uniquely identified by source’s address
and request number.
• Query relayed to a subset of neighbors by the bordercast
algorithm

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 92

 COMPARISONS 1

• Things in common:
• IP based operation
• Distributed operation
• Loop-free routing
• Very little or no support for sleep period operation and security

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 93

 COMPARISONS 2

DSDV AODV DSR ZPR

Source No No Yes No
Routing

Periodic Yes No No Yes

message (Locally)
Functioning Yes No No Yes
Proactively (Locally)
Functioning No Yes Yes Yes
Reactively (Globally)

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 94

 PERFORMANCE?

• End-to-end data throughput and delay

• Route acquisition time
• Percentage of out-of-order delivery
• Efficiency:
• Average number of data bits transmitted/data bits delivered
• Average number of control bits transmitted/data bits delivered
• Average number of control and data packets transmitted/data packet
delivered

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 95

 PARAMETERS

• Network Size
• Connectivity (average degree of a node)
• Topology rate of change
• Link capacity (bps)
• Fraction of unidirectional links
• Traffic patterns
• Mobility
• Fraction/frequency of sleeping nodes

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 96

 DESIGN GOALS

• Peer-to-peer mobile routing capability in mobile, wireless

domain.
• Intra-domain unicast routing protocol:
• Effective operation over a wide range of mobile networking scenarios
and environments
• Supports traditional, connectionless IP services
• Efficiently manages topologies changes and traffic demands

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 97

 DESIRED PROPERTIES

• Distributed operation
• Loop freedom
• Demand-based operation
• Proactive operation
• Security
• “Sleep” period operation
• Unidirectional link support

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 98

 A PLETHORA OF AD HOC ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
• Flat
• proactive
• FSLS – Fuzzy Sighted Link State
• FSR – Fisheye State Routing
• OLSR – Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (RFC 3626)
• TBRPF – Topology Broadcast Based on Reverse Path Forwarding
• reactive
• AODV – Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector (RFC 3561)
• DSR – Dynamic Source Routing (RFC 4728) Two promising
• DYMO – Dynamic MANET On-demand
• Hierarchical candidates:
•
OLSRv2 and
CGSR – Clusterhead-Gateway Switch Routing
• HSR – Hierarchical State Routing
•
DYMO
LANMAR – Landmark Ad Hoc Routing
• ZRP – Zone Routing Protocol
• Geographic position assisted
• DREAM – Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
• GeoCast – Geographic Addressing and Routing
• GPSR – Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
• LAR – Location-Aided Routing

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 99

 FURTHER DIFFICULTIES AND RESEARCH
AREAS
• Auto-Configuration
• Assignment of addresses, function, profile, program, …
• Service discovery
• Discovery of services and service providers
• Multicast
• Transmission to a selected group of receivers
• Quality-of-Service
• Maintenance of a certain transmission quality
• Power control
• Minimizing interference, energy conservation mechanisms
• Security
• Data integrity, protection from attacks (e.g. Denial of Service)
• Scalability
• 10 nodes? 100 nodes? 1000 nodes? 10000 nodes?
• Integration with fixed networks
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 100
 RECAP

• Introduction
• Applications
• Post-office analogy
• Registration and Tunneling
• Mobile IP Optimizations
• DHCP
• Ad hoc routing protocols
• DSR, AODV, DSDV & ZRP
• Network perfomances

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 101

 ?
THANK YOU
KULO_TN@ANNAUNIV.EDU

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 102

 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING I

• Split routing into discovering a path and maintaining a path

• Discover a path
• only if a path for sending packets to a certain destination is needed and
no path is currently available

• Maintaining a path
• only while the path is in use one has to make sure that it can be used
continuously

• No periodic updates needed!

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 103
 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING II

• Path discovery
• broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID
• if a station receives a broadcast packet
• if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address) then return the
packet to the sender (path was collected in the packet)
• if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then discard the packet
• otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet
• sender receives packet with the current path (address list)

• Optimizations
• limit broadcasting if maximum diameter of the network is known
• caching of address lists (i.e. paths) with help of passing packets
• stations can use the cached information for path discovery (own paths or paths for other
hosts)

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 104

 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

Sending from C to O
P R

C
G Q

B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 105

 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

Broadcast P R
[O,C,4711]
C
[O,C,4711] G Q

B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 106

 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

P R
[O,C/G,4711]
C
G [O,C/G,4711] Q
[O,C/B,4711]

B I
E
K M O
A
[O,C/E,4711] H

D L
F J N

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 107

 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

P R

C
G Q

B I [O,C/G/I,4711]
E
K M O
A
H
[O,C/E/H,4711]
L
[O,C/B/A,4711] D N
F J
[O,C/B/D,4711]
05/08/24
(alternatively: [O,C/E/D,4711])
Mobile Network Layer 108
 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

P R

C
G Q

B I [O,C/G/I/K,4711]
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

[O,C/E/H/J,4711]
05/08/24
[O,C/B/D/F,4711]
Mobile Network Layer 109
 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

P R

C
G Q

B I [O,C/G/I/K/M,4711]
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

[O,C/E/H/J/L,4711]
(alternatively: [O,C/G/I/K/L,4711])
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 110
 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

P R

C
G Q

B I
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

[O,C/E/H/J/L/N,4711

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 111

 DSR: ROUTE DISCOVERY

P R

C
G Q

B I Path: M, K, I, G
E
K M O
A
H

D L
F J N

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 112

 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING III

• Maintaining paths
• after sending a packet
• wait for a layer 2 acknowledgement (if applicable)
• listen into the medium to detect if other stations forward the packet (if
possible)
• request an explicit acknowledgement
• if a station encounters problems it can inform the sender of a packet or
look-up a new path locally

05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 113

 INTERFERENCE-BASED ROUTING

• Routing based on assumptions about interference between

signals N 1
N2

R1
S1 N3

N4

N5 N6 R2
S2

N8 N9
N7
neighbors
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 114
(i.e. within radio range)
 EXAMPLES FOR INTERFERENCE BASED
ROUTING

• Least Interference Routing (LIR)

• calculate the cost of a path based on the number of stations that can
receive a transmission
• Max-Min Residual Capacity Routing (MMRCR)
• calculate the cost of a path based on a probability function of successful
transmissions and interference
• Least Resistance Routing (LRR)
• calculate the cost of a path based on interference, jamming and other
transmissions

• LIR is very simple to implement, only information from direct

neighbors is necessary
05/08/24 Mobile Network Layer 115