Artificial Intelligence

Knowledge Representation Using

Structures

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 Structures
• A structure may be defined as a device to
support property inheritance.
• Inherence property employs that elements of
specific classes inherit attributes and values
from more general classes in which they are
combined.
• In order to support property inheritance,
objects must be organized into classes and
classes must be arranged in a generalized
hierarchy.

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 Semantic Networks
• It is one of the oldest and easiest knowledge
representation schemes.
• It is composed of nodes and links.
• Nodes represent objects.
 Objects can be any physical item, e.g. Book, car etc.
 Nodes can also be concepts, events or actions.
 Attributes of an object may also be used as nodes, e.g.
Size, colour, class, age etc.
• Nodes are interconnected by links or arcs. The arcs
(or arrows) show the relationship between various
objects.

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 Semantic Networks
is a Human
goes to is a
School Afaq Boy being

has is a
son eats
has Woman
Alia is a is a
son
Food
is married
to

owns a works IT in
Car MUET
Waqas as Manager
manufactured
by plays is in

has u r Toyota cricket Sindh

o
col
made in is a is in
Silver Pakistan
Japan Sport
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 Advantages of Semantic Networks
• The semantic net offers flexibility in adding new
nodes and links to a definition as needed. The
visual representation is easy to understand.
• The semantic net offers economy of effort since a
node can inherit characteristics from other nodes.
• The semantic net functions in a manner similar to
that of human information storage.
• Since nodes in semantic nets have the ability to
inherit relationships from other nodes, a net can
support the ability to reason and create definition
statements between non-linked nodes
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 Limitations
• No standards exist for the definition of nodes or
relationships between and among the nodes.
• The power of inheriting characteristics from one
node to another may offer potential difficulties.
• Procedural knowledge is difficult to represent in a
semantic network, since sequence and time are not
explicitly represented.

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 Frames
• A frame is a datastructure that includes all the
knowledge about a particular object. Frames were
introduced by Marvin Minisky in 1975.
• Frames are normally used to represent stereotyped
knowledge or knowledge built on well known
characteristics and experiences.
• Frame represents knowledge as structured objects
which is composed of labelled slots with their values
called fillers.
• Slots are similar to attributes in object oriented
approach, however, they can contain broader
information. The information may be declarative or
procedural
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 Frames
• Each frame describes one object. A frame includes all
the knowledge about a particular object.
• Frames are basically an application of object-oriented
programming for AI and Expert Systems.
• Frames, as in frames of reference, provide a concise,
structural representation of knowledge in a natural
manner.
• In contrast to other representation methods, the
values that describe one object are grouped together
into a single unit called a frame. Thus, a frame
compasses complex objects, entire situations, or a
management problem as a single entity.
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 Frames
• The knowledge is partitioned in a frame into slots. A
slot can describe declarative knowledge or
procedural knowledge.
• The slots in a frame contain information such as:
 Frame identification information
 Relationship of this frame to other frames.
 Descriptor of requirements for a frame (e.g. A chair, its
height and size etc.)
 Procedural information on use of the structure described.
 Frame default information.
 New instance information.
• Frame systems support class inheritance.

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 Example of a Frame

A Frame for a book:

Slot Fillers
Publisher Prentice Hall
Title Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach
Author Russel S.; Norvig P.
Edition Second
year 2003
Pages 692
ISBN 0-13-790395-2

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 Scripts
• A script is a knowledge representation scheme
similar to a frame, but instead of describing an
object, the script describes a sequence of events.
• Like the frame, the script portrays a stereotyped
situation. Unlike the frame, it is usually presented in
a particular context.
• To describe a sequence of events, the script uses a
series of slots containing information about the
people, objects, and actions that are involved in the
events.

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 Scripts
• Some of the elements of a typical scripts include
entry conditions, props, roles, tracks, and scenes.
 Props refers to objects that are used in the sequence of
events that occur.
 Roles refer to the people involved in the script.
 The result is conditions that exist after the events in the
script have occurred.
 Track refers to variations that might occur in a particular
script.
 Scenes describe the actual sequence of events that occur.

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Restaurant Script: An Example
Track: Fast food Restaurant
Roles: Customer
Server
Props: Counter
Tray
Food
Money
Napkins
Salt/Pepper/Catsup/Straws etc.
Entry Conditions:
Customer is hungry
Customer has money
Scene1: Entry
• Customer parks car
• Customer enters restaurant
• Customer waits in line at the counter
• Customer reads the menu on the
wall and makes a decision about what
to
order.
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Restaurant Script: An Example

Scene 2: Order
• Customer gives order to server
• Server fills order by putting food on tray
• Customer pays server
Scene 3: Eating
• Customer gets napkins, straws, salt etc.
• Customer takes tray to an unoccupied
table.
• Customer eats food quickly.
Scene 3A: (Option): Take-out
• Customer takes food and exists.
Scene4: Exist
• Customer cleans up table
• Customer discards trash
• Customer leaves restaurant
• Customer drives away.

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Restaurant Script: An Example
Results:
• Customer is no longer hungry
• Customer has less money
• Customer is happy*
• Customer is unhappy*
• Customer is too full*
• Customer has upset stomach*

Options
*

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