Chapter 6

Data Processing, Analysis

and Interpretation

1
 Data Processing Operations
 Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data

 Editing

 Examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible.

 Is done to assure the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as complete

as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

 It could be field editing or central editing.

 Coding

 Assigning numerals or other symbols to answers to make it ready for analysis.

 Taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire.

 In case of hand coding, code on the margin of the questionnaire with colored pencil or to copy the data from
2
 Cont…

Classification

Arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.

Especially for studies with large volume of raw data

Data get divided into a number of groups or classes

Classification can be according to attributes based on descriptive information (such

as literacy, sex, honesty, income level, educational level etc.).

3
 Tabulation

 Summarizing raw data and displaying in compact form for further analysis.

 Arrange in some kind of concise and logical order.

 Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons:

 It saves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum

 It facilitates the process of comparison

 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions

 It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

4
 Measurement Scales
 Nominal: partition a set into categories that are mutually exclusive

 The categories are in no logical order and have no particular relationship.

 E.g. Respondents’ marital status, gender, students’ Id number, etc.

 Ordinal: include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.

 Implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’

 Consists of distinct categories in which order is implied.

 Values in one category are larger or smaller than values in other categories

 E.g. rating-excellent, good, fair, poor)

 Interval: Is a set of numerical measurements in which the distance between numbers is of a known, constant size.

 Ratio: Consists of numerical measurements where the distance between numbers is of a known, constant size, in
5
Measurement Definition Logical property Example
Scale
Nominal Distinct response A≠ B Did you vote in the last
presidential election? (Yes, No)
alternatives

Response alternatives A>B>C What is your highest level of

Ordinal increasing/decreasing education? (Less than high

in value (ordered school, high school graduate,
responses) some college, college graduate);

In what place did a runner finish

a race?

Response alternatives A > B > C ,where the Grading system in public

Interval distance between A and B universities for regular students

increasing/decreasing
is the same as between B
in equal increments
and C
6
Measure contains an If A = 2B, then B actually Physical measurements;
Data Analysis
Is the computation of certain measures

Searching for patterns of relationship that exist among

data-groups.

Estimating the values of unknown parameters of the

population and testing of hypotheses

Can be categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential

(statistical) analysis.

7
Descriptive Analysis
Used to describe the basic features of a survey data.

Describe and summarize data.

 Describe the characteristics of location, spread, and

shape.

It includes frequency distributions, mean, median, mode;

range, variance, and standard deviations.

8
 Frequency Distribution
Shows the distribution (or the count) of individual scores in
a sample for a specific variables.

Refers to the number of times each score or response

occurs.
 Ungrouped Frequency distribution
 Grouped Frequency distribution

Ungrouped Data: consists of single values along with their

frequencies. 9
Example: a survey of 16 micro and small businesses
engaged in sale of the products

Cumulative
Sales Amount Frequency Percentages
Percentages

30 3 18.75 18.75

35 4 25.00 43.75

40 5 31.25 75.00

45 2 12.50 87.50
10
50 2 12.50 100.00
 Group Frequency Distribution
When values are grouped into categories/intervals when the samples is
very big.
 E.g. annual income, peoples age, etc

Class-Interval Frequency Class Boundaries Mid Points

1–5 5 0.5 – 5.5 3
6 - 10 5 5.5 – 10.5 8
11 - 15 10 10.5 – 15.5 13
16 – 20 15 15.5 – 20.5 18
21 – 25 10 20.5 – 25.5 23
26 – 30 5 25.5 – 30.5 28
N = 50 11
Class limit for the interval: 1-5 is 0.5 to 5.5

Class width for the interval: 1-5 is 5 (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,)

Midpoint of the interval: 1-5 is 3 (0.5 + 5.5)/2 = 3

12
Measures of Central Tendencies/Locations
Measures of Central Tendencies - are used to compute summary statistics of variables

being studied.

Mode: - is the most frequent value in the data.

E.g. Number of people in a family 3,4,5,5,6,7,8,9,10

The mode is 5

Median: - is the middle value that divides ranked data into two equal parts.

E.g. Score: 75,80,82,84,87

The median is 82.

Mean: - is the average of a value of a data distribution.

E.g. 10,12,12,20,15,10,18,16,8,5
13
Measures of Dispersion/ Variation
Range: - Is the difference between the highest and the

lowest value.

Standard Deviation: - shows the extent to which values in

a distributions deviate from their mean.

14
Correlation Analysis
Measures the degree of linear relationship between two variables in a dataset.

- Shows the presence of association and degree of relation between two and/or more
variables in the data.

Correlation entails:
 Whether or not the correlation exists or not

 Degree of correlation

 Is it positive or negativities, i.e. direct or indirect

 Is the relationship strong or weak

 Correlation coefficient varies between +1 and -1.

If the value is +1, there is a perfect positive relationship

If the value is -1, a perfect negative relationship

15
Regression Analysis
Deals with prediction of values for a dependent variable using known
values of an independent variable.

Is technique that establishes a functional relationship between the

dependent and one or more independent variables.

Explains the change in the dependent variable as one of the

independent variables change by one unit.

Simple regression analysis: - is predicting the value of one dependent

variable based on the value of one independent variable.

Multiple regression analysis: - is predicting the value of one dependent

16
The end

17
 Quiz 5%

1. List and explain the measurement scales with

examples.
2. What is data editing, coding and
classification?

18
RESEARCH REPORT WRITING AND PRESENTATION
 Research report is considered a major component of the research study.

 The following are the important purpose of writing of the reports;

1) Presenting the results

2) Easy to understand the findings to all

3) To take the modification in the research work

4) Future reference

5) Guidance to other researchers

6) Formal completion

7) Written evidence

8) Finding new idea

19
 Steps in Writing Report
(a) Logical analysis of the subject-matter

 Develop a subject logically and chronologically.

 Logical development: Associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis.

 Chronological development: Based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence.

(b) Preparation of the final outline

 Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed.

 An aid to the logical organization of the material

20
(c) Preparation of the rough draft

 Sits to write down what has done in the context of research study.

 Write down the procedure adopted in collecting the material for the study

 With various limitations faced, the technique of analysis adopted, the broad findings and generalizations
and the various suggestions wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

(d) Rewriting and polishing

 Careful revision

 See whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and consistency

 Give due attention to the fact that in rough draft he has been consistent or not.

 Check the mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling and usage.

21
(e) Preparation of the final bibliography

Is a list of books in some way relevant to the research which has been done.

Contain all those works which the researcher has consulted.

Arranged alphabetically

(f) Writing the final draft.

The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style

Use simple language, avoiding ambiguous expressions such as “it seems”, “there may
be”, and the like ones.

22
Layout of the Research Report
 A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise

(A) Preliminary pages;

 Report should carry a cover page, abstract, followed by acknowledgements

 Table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations

(B) The main text;

 The complete outline of the research report along with all details.

 The main text of the report should have the following sections: (i)
Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and recommendations; (iii) The
results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) the summary.

23
(C) The end matter.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in

respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires,
sample information,
mathematical derivations and the like ones,

Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given.

24
Outlines of the Research Project
• Title page

• Approval sheet

• Declaration

• Abstract

• Acknowledgements

• Tables of contents

• List of tables

• List of figures

• Acronyms 25
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

 Background of the Study

 Statement of the Problem

 Objective of the Study

 Research Hypothesis/Research Questions

 Significance of the Study

 Scope and Limitation of the Study

 Organization of the Paper(study) 26

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 Description of the Study Area/ Organization

 Data Sources

 Sampling Design

 Data Collection Instruments

 Method of Data Analysis

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------- 28
THE END

29