CHAPTER 2:

Chemical Bonding and structure

1
 Outline
• Introduction to bonding
• Ionic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
• Metallic bonding
• Lewis structures
• Formal Charges and Resonances
• Strengths of ionic and covalent bonds
• Molecular structure and polarity

2
 Octet Rule
• The octet rule: states that when atoms bond, they lose, gain
or share electrons to attain the electronic configuration
ns2np6 of the nearest noble gas.
• Octet rule states: that during the formation of a chemical
compound, each atom has an octet (8) electrons in its
highest occupied energy level by gaining, losing, or sharing
electrons.

3
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Expanded:can only happen if the central element

has d-orbitals or 3rd period or greater

 Molecules with less than an octet.

Odd number:few stable cpds. contain an odd

number of valence electrons and thus cannot obey
the octet rule. Exam: NO, NO2 , and ClO2 Incomplete :Fewer than eight
4
 Bonding
Bonding is the joining of at least two atoms to form a molecule or
compound.
 Most atoms are chemically bonded to each other because most atoms
are less stable existing by themselves than when they are combined.
 Valence electrons play a fundamental role in chemical bonding.

A chemical bond is a mutual electrical attraction between the nuclei and

valence electrons of different atoms that binds the atoms together.
 Why atoms combined to form compounds, clusters, molecules/
polyatomic ions?
 to attain octet (eight) rules

 to have lower energy (to be stable)

5
How do Atoms Combined to Form Compounds/ Polyatomic Ions?

• In chemical bonds, atoms are combined to form compounds,

clusters, molecules/ polyatomic ions by:
 Transferring /losing of their valence electrons.
 Gaining of extra valence electrons
 Sharing of valence electrons
 Coordinating valence electrons

6
 Types of Chemical Bonding
 When atoms bond, their valence electrons are redistributed in ways
that make the atoms more stable.
1. Ionic Bonding is formed by electron transfer from a metal to a non-
metal with different electronegativity values.

2. Covalent Bonding is formed as a result of electron sharing between

two non-metals.

 If the electronegativity values are very similar then it is non-polar

covalent bonding but if the electronegativity values are much

different, then it is a polar covalent bonding.

3. Metallic Bonding refers to the interaction between the delocalized

electrons and the metal nuclei. 7

 Ionic Bonding
 Metals tend to lose these electrons and become positively charged
ions.
 Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively charged ions.

 Chemical bonding that results from the electrical attraction between

large numbers of cations and anions.

 The bond formed between two ions by the transfer of electrons.

 Ionic compounds result when an atom that loses electrons relatively

easily (a metal) reacts with an atom that has a high affinity for
electrons (a non-metal).

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 Favorable condition for Formation of Ionic Compounds

 Low ionize metal ( easily lose electron) and high electron affinity
(gain electrons) non-metal.
 High electro-affinity of the nonmetals
 High lattice energy
 High electro-negativity difference between a metal and a
nonmetal atom.
• all substances must be electrical neutral

Note! Ionic compounds are usually formed when metal cations bond
with non-metal anions. The only common exception is ammonium ion
which is not a metal, but it forms ionic compounds
9
 Cont.…

• Purely ionic bonds do not occur because the atom that

gives up the electron still has some attraction for the
electron.
• The degree to which bonding between atoms of two
elements is ionic or covalent can be estimated by
calculating the difference in the elements’
electronegativity's, a measure of the atom’s ability to
attract electrons.
10
 Strengths of ionic and covalent bonds
• Bond’s strength describes how strongly each atom is
joined to another atom.
Ionic bond strength and lattice energy

• ionic compound is stable because of the strong electrostatic

attraction between its positive and negative ions
• lattice energy of a compound is a measure of the strength of this
attraction
• lattice energy (ΔHlattice) of an ionic compound is defined as the
energy required to separate one mole of the solid into its component
gaseous ions

11
 Ionic strength
• described in classical physics by Coulomb's Law

 Where, the energy of the electrostatic attraction ( E ) between two

charged particles is proportional to the magnitude of the charges
( Q1 and Q2 ) and inversely proportional to the internuclear distance
between the particles ( r ):

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Example 1: Al2O3 or Al2Se3?

In these two ionic compounds, the charges Z+ and Z– are the same, so
the difference in lattice energy will depend upon Ro (interionic
distance). The O2– ion is smaller than the Se2– ion. Thus, Al2O3 would

have a shorter interionic distance than Al2Se3, and Al2O3 would have
the larger lattice energy.
Example 2: ZnO or NaCl?
ZnO would have the larger lattice energy because the Z values of both
the cation and the anion in ZnO are greater, and the interionic distance
of ZnO is smaller than that of NaCl.

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 The Born-haber Cycle (BHC)

 relates lattice energies of ionic compounds to ionization energies,

electron affinities, and other atomic and molecular properties.
 It is based on Hess’s law.

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 Consider the reaction between lithium and fluorine:
Li(s) + 1/2F2(g) → LiF(s)
 with the application of Hess’s law.
1. Convert solid lithium to lithium vapor (sublimation):
Li(s) → Li(g) H°1 = 155.2 kJ/mol
2. Dissociate 1/2 mole of F2 gas into separate gaseous F atoms:
1/2F2(g) → F(g) H°2 = 75.3 kJ/mol
3. Ionize 1 mole of gaseous Li atoms (corresponds to the first ionization of
lithium):
Li(g) → Li+(g) + e- H°3 = 520 kJ/mol
4. Add 1 mole of electrons to 1 mole of gaseous F atoms (opposite of
electron affinity ):
F(g) + e- → F-(g H°4 = -2328 kJ/mol
5. Combine 1 mole of gaseous Li1 and 1 mole of F 2 to form 1 mole of solid LiF:
Li+(g) + F2(g) → LiF(s) H°5 = ?
The reverse of step 5, energy + LiF(s) → Li+(g) + F-(g) defines the lattice
energy of LiF.
Thus, the lattice energy must have the same magnitude as H5° but an opposite
15
• Hence, 1017 kJ/mol and the lattice energy of LiF is +1017 kJ/mol.

16
 Properties of Ionic Compounds
1. crystalline solids at room temperature. The fundamental
units of ionic solid are positive and negative ions.
2. Crystalline ionic solids are usually brittle and non-
conductors of electricity, although molten crystals may be
good conductors.
3. They usually have high melting and boiling points.
4. Ionic compounds are non-volatile.
5. Ionic compounds are usually soluble in inorganic solvents
(water is the most common solvent for ionic compounds)
but insoluble in organic solvents like benzene, ethanol and
carbon tetrachloride.

• Note! Ionic compounds are very resistant to heat but many

will be easily broken by water. 17
 Covalent Bonding
• Chemical bonding results from the mutual attraction of atoms for
a “shared” pair of electrons.
• Bonding between atoms with an electronegativity difference of 1.7
or less is classified as covalent.
• Bonding between two atoms of the same element is completely
covalent.

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 Polarity of Covalent Bonds
1.Nonpolar Covalent bond: A covalent bond in which the bonding
electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms, resulting in a
balanced distribution of electrical charge. Example; H2, Cl2

2.polar covalent Bonds that have an uneven distribution of charge.

 Bonds have significantly different electronegativity's, the electrons
are more strongly attracted by the more-electronegative atom.
Bonds that have an uneven distribution of charge.

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 • Polar-covalent Bond: a covalent bond in which the bonded
atoms have an unequal attraction for the shared electrons.

3. Coordinate Covalent bond: A coordinate covalent bond (also called

a dative bond) is formed when one atom donates both of the electrons
to form a single covalent bond.
 These electrons originate from the donor atom as an unshared pair.

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Lewis structures

21
 Draw the Lewis diagram for each of the following.
• NH3, COCl2(Carbonyl dichloride), HCN, POCl (Phosphoryl chlorite), C2F4
(Tetrafluoroethylene).

22
 Exercise
1. Write a Lewis structure of:
a. nitrogen trichloride, NCl3
b. chlorate ion, ClO3-
2. Draw a Lewis structure for CO3 2–
, SF4 and HCOOH (formic
acid).

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 Resonances
• Resonance structure: A molecule or polyatomic ion that has
multiple Lewis structures because bonding can be shown multiple
ways.

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25
Write the resonance structure

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 Exercise

1. Write three equivalent structures for the SO3 molecule that obey
the octet rule.
2. Draw Lewis structures of all the important resonance forms of
each of the following:

a . NO2F(N central)

b . HNO3

c . NO–

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 Formal charge
• When two or more unsymmetrical resonance forms exist: How
do you determine which form exerts the most influence on the
resonance hybrid?
• Because the resonance hybrid is an average of the resonance
forms, one form may contribute more than the others and
“weight” the average in its favor.

Calculating formal charge in resonance forms

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 Formal Charge: Selecting the Best Resonance Structure

 An atom “owns” all of its non-bonding electrons and half of its bonding
electrons.

Formal charge of atom =

# valence e- - (# unshared electrons + 1/2 # shared electrons)

B For OC
For OA
O # valence e- = 6
# valence e- = 6
O O
# non-bonding e- = 4 # non-bonding e- = 6
A C
# bonding e- = 4 x 1/2 = 2 For OB # bonding e- = 2 x 1/2 = 1

Formal charge = 0 -
Formal charge = -1
# valence e = 6

# non-bonding e- = 2

# bonding e- = 6 x 1/2 = 3
Formal charge = +1 29
10-29
 Formal charge

Three criteria for choosing the more important resonance structure

are:

Smaller formal charges (either positive or negative)

are preferable to larger formal charges.

Avoid like charges (+ + or - - ) on adjacent atoms.

A more negative formal charge should reside on an

atom with a larger EN value.

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 Example 2

EXAMPLE: NCO- has three possible resonance forms.

N C O N C O N C O

A B C

Formal charges:
-2 0 +1 -1 0 0 0 0 -1

N C O N C O N C O

Forms B and C have negative formal charges on N and O. These forms

are more important than Form A.
Form C has a negative charge on O which is more electronegative than N.
Therefore, Form C contributes the most to the resonance hybrid.
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Properties of Covalent Compounds
1. The covalent compounds exist as gases or liquids or soft
solids.
2. The melting and boiling points of covalent compounds are
generally low.
3. Covalent compound are insoluble in water but dissolve in
organic solvents.
4. They are non-conductors of electricity in solid, molten or
aqueous state.
 Metallic Bond
 It is the attraction between metal atoms in a metallic crystal.
 It is formed between electropositive metal atoms of same or
different elements.
 In metallic bonds, all the cations are packed closely together
 There is still an attraction between the free floating electrons (-)
and metal cations (+).

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 Properties of metal bond

 Metals are good conductors of heat and

electricity
 Metals are malleable
 Metals are ductile
 Metals have high tensile strength
 Metals have luster
 Insoluble in water

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 MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND POLARITY
VSEPR THEORY
 Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR
theory) is used to predict the molecular shape ,
including approximate bond angles around a central atom
 VSEPR assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a
central atom will adopt an arrangement that minimizes
repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the
distance between them.
 The repulsion force between the lone pairs and bond pairs follows this order:
LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP

 The order of sizes from largest to smallest is: Lone pair>triple

bond>double bond>single bond

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According to the VSEPR model, molecules adopt
geometries in which their valence electron pairs
position themselves as far from each other as
possible.
A molecule can be described by the generic formula
AXmEn,,
where A is the central atom, X stands for any atom or group of atoms
surrounding the central atom, and E represents a lone pair of electrons, m &
n are the no. of surrounding atoms and lone pair ens. respectively.

The steric number (SN = m + n) is the number of

positions occupied by atoms or lone pairs around a
central atom;
lone pairs and bond pairs are nearly equal in their
influence on molecular shape.
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 Rules of VSEPR
1. Write the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.
2. Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and
bonds) around the central atom. A single, double, or triple bond
counts as one region of electron density.
3. If the molecule is charged, the corresponding number of electrons
is either added (for a –ve charge) or subtracted (for a +ve charge)
from the electron count.
4. Dividing the resulting number of electrons by 2 gives the number
of electron pairs around the central atom.
5. Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of
regions of electron density: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral,
trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral.

Now a geometry can be assigned.

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 Molecular shapes with three electron sets (Trigonal Planar
Arrangement, AX3 type)
• Three electron sets around the central atom repel each other to lie
at the corners of an equilateral triangle.
• This is the trigonal planar arrangement and the ideal bond angle
is 120.

• Example: BF3, NO3-, HCHO (formaldehyde) etc.

 Another molecular shape within this electron set arrangement,
with two bonding and one lone pair (AX2E type).
• The examples of this type include PbCl 2, SnBr2, SO2, O3, etc.
They have bent (V-shaped or angular) geometry.
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(Example SnCl2 = 95°).)
 Molecular Shapes with Four Electrons Sets (Tetrahedral
Arrangement, AX4 Type)
• In three dimensions, the four electron sets can move farther
apart and point to the corners of a tetrahedron, giving a bond
angle of 109.5o.
• Therefore, all molecules or ions with four electron sets around
the central atom adopt the tetrahedral arrangement.
• Some of the examples of this type are CH4, NH4+, SO42− .

• When one of the four electron sets in the tetrahedral

arrangement is a lone pair, the molecular shape is that of a
triagonal pyramid (AX3E type).

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 When the four sets of electrons around the central atom
include two bonding and two non-bonding sets, the molecular
shape is bent, V-shaped or angular (AX2E2 type).

 Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Sets (Trigonal

Bipyramidal Arrangements, AX5 Type)
• AX4E, AX3E2 and AX2E3 types are with five electron sets
around the central atom like AX5 type but differ in shape and
bond angle.

40
 When five electron sets maximize their separation, they form the
trigonal bipyramidal arrangement with all five positions occupied
by bonded atoms, the molecule has a trigonal bipyramidal shape
(AX5 type).

• Lone-pairs exert stronger repulsive forces than bond pairs. With one
lone-pair present (AX4E type), the molecule has a Seesaw shape.

• For example, SF4, XeO2F2, IF4+, IO2F2-. 41

• With two lone pairs present (AX3E2 type), the molecule has a T-Shape.

• Some of the examples of this type include ClF 3, BrF3, and ICl3.
• Molecules with two bonding and three lone pair sets are linear in shape (AX2E3
type).

• The examples of this type are XeF 2, I3–, IF2–.

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 Molecular Shapes with Six Sets of Electrons (Octahedral Arrangement,
AX6Type)
• AX5E and AX4E2 are the two common shapes under consideration.
• They are with six sets of electrons like AX6 type and exhibit similar electron
arrangement around the central atom but different molecular shapes.
• With six bonding groups, the molecular shapes are octahedral (AX6 type). For
example, SF6, IOF5.

• Five bonded atoms and one lone pair (AX5E type) define the square pyramidial
shape. The examples of this type are BrF5, TeF5–, XeOF4.

43
• When a molecule has two lone pairs and four bonding set (AX4E2
type) the positioning gives rise to the square-planar shape.
• The examples of this type are XeF4, ICl4–.

• The molecular shape of molecules with more than one central atom
are different in defferent parts of the molecule.
• Consider ethene (C2H4).
• Three bonding sets and no lone pair are around each of the two
central carbon atoms, so ethene is shaped like two trigonal planar
geometries that share a point.

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45
Limitations of VSEPR

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 Intermolecular Forces in Covalent Compounds
There are two types of electrostatic forces at work in any sample of matter. These are:
intramolecular and intermolecular forces.

Intramolecular
- forces that hold atoms
together within a molecule.
• are forces that exist between
molecules.
• chemical bond (ionic, covalent
or metallic) is a force that
exists within a particle.
• Affects chemical properties
Intermolecular
• are the attractive and
repulsive forces that arise
between the molecules of a
substance.
• mediate the interactions
between individual
molecules of a substance.
• are responsible for most of
the physical and chemical
properties of matter.

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 Though there are several important types of intermolecular forces,
only dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding, and, London (Dispersion)
forces, will be discussed.
1. Dipole –dipole bond
• Dipole-dipole forces exist between molecules that are polar-those
that have a permanent dipole moment due to uneven sharing of
electrons
• attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule
and the negative end of another polar molecule.
• This uneven sharing gives one side of the molecule a partial positive
charge (δ+) and the other side a partially negative charge (δ-)
• The polarities of individual molecules ten to align by opposites,
drawing molecules together and thereby favoring a condensed phase.
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 2. Hydrogen Bonding
• The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between
the hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond and an
electronegative O, N, or F atom. IT IS NOT A BOND.
• The atoms N, O, and F are all very electronegative and very small.
• The δ+ hydrogen atom is “shared” between two atoms of N, O, or
F: the hydrogen atom has a covalent bond to one and a hydrogen
bond to the other. Hydrogen bonds are very directional; the three
atoms must lie in a straight line.

49
 3.Dispersion Forces – van der Waals forces/London forces
 attractive forces arising from instantaneous dipoles and
induced dipoles.
 The London dispersion force is a temporary attractive
force that results when the electrons in two adjacent
atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form
temporary dipoles.
 London forces are the attractive forces that cause non
polar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze
into solids when the temperature is lowered
sufficiently.

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Table 3. 1 Strength and polarity of intermolecular forces

51
 CHEMICAL BONDING THEORIES
1. The two modern chemical bonding theories which use
quantum mechanics are the Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and
the Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT).
2. Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
 The basic principle of valence bond theory is that a covalent bond
forms when orbitals of two atoms overlap and the overlap region,
which is between the nuclei, is occupied by a pair of electrons.

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1. An atomic orbital of the outermost shell of an atom containing one
electron has a tendency to overlap with another atomic orbital of
another atom containing one electron of opposite spin. This type of
overlap 'gives rise to the formation 'of a bond which is called
covalent bond.
2. The overlap of two atomic orbitals gives rise to a single bond
orbital which is a localized orbital and is occupied by both the
electrons
3. The two electrons that occupy the bond orbital have opposite spins.
4. Each electron occupies the entire bond orbital and hence may be
considered to belong to both the atomic orbitals, i.e., the electron
pair present in the bond orbital now belongs to each of the two
atomic orbitals.
5. As a result of overlapping there is maximum electron density
somewhere between the two atoms.

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 Types of Overlap of Atomic Orbitals
1. s-s overlap. In this type of overlap half-filled s-orbital of one atom
overlaps with the half filled s-orbital of the other atom.

2. s-poverlap. Here half-filled s-orbital of one atom overlaps with the

half-filled p-orbital of the other atom.

3.p-p head-to-head overlap. This is also called head-on or end-on or

end-to-end or linear overlap. Here the overlap of the two p-orbitals
takes place along the line joining the nuclei of two atoms (called
nuclear axis, bond axis or molecular axis) .Hence the name linear
overlap

54
 p-p side-to-side overlap. This is also called side-wise or side-
way or lateral overlap.
 Here the overlap of two p-orbitals takes place along a line
perpendicular to the molecular axis. Hence the name lateral
overlap.

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• Because of the directional nature of p orbital, the overlap may
take place in two ways:
i. the half filled p orbitals along the line joining the two nuclei.
This is called as head on, end-to-end, end on or linear
overlap gives rise to sigma (σ) and
ii. the half filled p orbitals overlap along the line perpendicular
to the nuclear axis.
This overlapping of p orbitals is parallel to each other, hence
is called lateral or sideways overlapping this gives rise to pi
(π) bond.
• s - s and s - p will always overlap along the nuclear axis, hence
results only in sigma bonds.

56
• A side - to - side or parallel overlap forms another type of
covalent bond called a pi (π) bond.
• It has two regions of electron density.
 One above and one below the sigma bond axis.
 One π-bond holds two electrons that occupy both regions of the
bond.
 A double-bond always consists of one σ and one π bond.

• The double-bond increases electron density between the nuclei.

 A triple bond consists of one σ and two π bonds.

• The reason is that each electron pair occupies a distinct orbital, a

specific region of electron density, so repulsions are reduced. 57
 Hybridization of Orbitals
• Valence bond theory employs the concept of hybridization.
• It is the overlap or blending of s, p and d orbitals to explain bond
formation.
• In applying the valence bond method to the ground state electron
configuration of carbon you can assume that the filled 1s orbital will
not be involved in the bonding and focus your attention on the
valence-shell orbitals.

• From its ground state configuration, two unpaired electrons in the 2p

subshell are observed.
• Consider CH4

58
• In hybridization scheme, the number of new hybrid orbitals is
equal to the total number of atomic orbitals that are combined.
• Hybridization provides a useful and convenient method of
predicting the shapes of molecules.
sp hybrid orbitals
 Combination (mixing) of one s and one p orbital is called sp
hybridization and the resultant orbitals are called sp hybrid orbitals
• When two electron sets surround the central atom, you observe a
linear molecular shape.
• VBT explains this by proposing that mixing two non-equivalent
orbitals of a central atom one s and one p, gives rise to two
equivalent sp hybrid orbitals that lie 180° apart.

59
 Eg. BeCl2

sp2 hybrid orbitals

• The boron atom has four orbitals but only three electrons in its valence shell.
• In most boron compounds the hybridization scheme combines one 2s and two
2p orbitals into three sp2 hybrid orbitals.
• Using orbital diagrams to represent this hybridization, we have sp2 hybrization
for B.
Eg.BF3

. Ground state = one unpaired electron it can form only one covalent bond,
• Excited state three unpaired electrons three bonds can be formed.
• The valence bond method predicts that BCl3 is a trigonal planar molecule with 120° Cl–B–Cl
60
bond angle.
 sp3 hybridization

• The one 2s and three 2p-orbitals of carbon are mixed to produce

four new orbitals that are equivalent to each other in energy and in
shape.
• Carbon in its excited state can form four bonds.
• Carbon, the central atom in a molecule of methane CH4 has only
two unpaired electrons in the ground state.
Eg. sp3 hybridization for carbon

61
 sp3d hybridization
• A maximum of eight valence electrons can be accommodated by any
hybridization scheme involving only s and p orbitals. .

• For example, we need five hybrid orbitals to describe bonding in PCl5. In a

gaseous molecule of phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5, the central atom

phosphorus has only three unpaired electrons in its ground state. Electrons must
be unpaired to provide the correct number of unpaired electrons for bond
formation.
• Five orbitals are being used and sp3d hybridization occurs, giving a trigonal
bipyramidal structure

62
 sp3d2 Hybridization

• Another structure featuring an expanded octet is SF6.

• Here, six hybrid orbitals are required in order to describe bonding.
• These are obtained through the hybridization scheme sp3d2,
represented by the orbital diagrams.

63
Exercise
1. Describe a hybridization scheme for the central atom
and the molecular geometry of CO2.

64
 Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)
• Atomic orbitals are capable of combining to produce new electron
distributions called molecular orbitals (MOs) – one MO for every
AO.

65
 Bonding and Anti-Bonding Molecular Orbitals
• In place of atomic orbitals of the separated atoms, the molecular
orbitals for the united atoms are obtained, and these are of two
types.
1. Bonding molecular orbitals have a region of high electron
density between the nuclei, with lower energy.
2. Anti-bonding molecular orbitals have region of zero electron
density (a node) between the nuclei (high electron charge
density away from the region between the two nuclei), higher
energy.
 Electrons in bonding orbitals contribute to bond formation and
electrons in anti-bonding orbitals detract (diminish) from bond
formation.
• When two atomic orbitals overlap end-to-end, they form two
sigma-molecular orbitals (MOs).
66
 Electron Configuration of Diatomic Molecules
• After applying two principles of filling orbitals (aufbau and
Pauli exclusion principles) we can predict that both electrons in
H2 will go into the lower energy orbital denoted by (σ1s)2.
• A molecular-orbital diagram shows the relative energy and
number of electrons in each MO, as well as the atomic orbitals
from which they form.

• Figure 3.24 Molecular orbital diagram and bonding in the H2

molecule. 67
Note! The number of molecular orbitals formed must equal the
number of atomic orbitals available for combination.
 The order of energy of molecular orbitals has been determined
mainly from spectroscopic data.
a. In simple homonuclear diatomic molecules (total electrons = 14
or less) the order is:

b. For simple homonuclear diatomic molecules (total electrons

greater than 14) the order is:

68
Bond Order
• The term bond order is used to indicate whether a covalent bond is
single (bond order = 1), double (bond order = 2) or triple (bond
order = 3).

Magnetic Properties
• A species with unpaired electrons exhibits paramagnetic property.
• The species is attracted by an external magnetic field.
• A species in which all the electrons are paired, exhibits
diamagnetism.
• Such species are not attracted (and, in fact, are slightly repelled) by
a magnetic field.

69
70
 Exercise
1. Use the molecular orbital theory and derive the electron
configuration of the following molecules. Identify those
which exist and do not exist.
a .He2
b. Be2
c. B2
d. C2
e. N2

71
 TYPES OF CRYSTALS

• A crystal is a piece of a solid substance that has plane surface, sharp edges,
and a regular geometric shape.
• A crystalline solid is formed by regular repetition of its building blocks
(atoms or molecule) in a three dimensional periodic array.
 There are four important classes of crystalline solids.

1. Ionic Crystals
 The fundamental units of an ionic solids are positive and negative ions.
 Crystalline ionic solids are usually, brittle, and nonconductors of
electricity, although molten crystals may be good conductors. They
• usually have high melting points. Some of the more familiar ionic
solids are table salt (NaCl), saltpeter (KNO3), washing soda
(Na2CO3.10H2O), and black board chalk
72
• (CaCO3).
 2.Molecular Crystals
• Various combinations of dipole-dipole, dispersion and hydrogen-
bonding forces are operative in molecular solids, which accounts for
their wide range of physical properties.
• Molecular crystals are usually transparent, brittle, and break easily
when stressed. They are usually non conductors of heat and
electricity and usually have low melting points

73
 3. Covalent Network Crystals
 High melting points
– To melt such a solid, covalent bonds must be broken
 Insoluble in all common solvents
– For solution to occur, covalent bonds must be broken
 Poor electrical conductors
– There are no mobile electrons (EXCEPT Graphite)

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 4. Metallic Crystals
• The strong metallic bonding forces hold
individual atoms together in metallic solids.
• The properties of metals, such as high electrical
and thermal conductivity, luster and malleability
result from the presence of delocalized electrons,
the essential feature of metallic bonding

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Table Comparison of the four types of crystals

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Thank you

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