PENGERJAAN DINGIN LOGAM

Pengaruh Pengerjaan Dingin Terhadap Sifat Mekanik

Suatu logam dikatakan mengalami pengerjaan dingin

apabila butir-butir kristalnya berada dalam keadaan
terdistorsi setelah mengalami deformasi plastis. Dalam
keadaan ini pada kristal terdapat berbagai dislokasi setelah
terjadi slip dan/atau twinning.
Sebagai akibat dari pengerjaan dingin beberapa sifat
mekanik akan mengalami perubahan, yaitu kekuatan dan
kekerasannya naik, tetapi keuletannya turun dengan makin
tingginya derajad deformasi dingin.
 Cold Working

Cold roll to “pancake” grains

Increases hardness and strength at the expense

of ductility.
 ©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein
under license.

The effect of cold work on the mechanical properties of

copper
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

7.24)
Figure 7.23 The
effect of percent
cold work on the

Problems 7.22 and

aluminum alloy (for
properties of a 3105
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister 7e.

8
 Cold Work
• What is the tensile strength &
Analysis Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
ro2  rd2
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and
Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and
Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 9
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

7.19, Callister 7e.

10
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL > 15 < 27 %CW

11
Strain Hardening
 True Stress and Strain vs
Engineering/Nominal/Apparent Stress and Strain
Figure 2.5 (a) Load-elongation curve in
tension testing of a stainless steel
specimen. (b) Engineering stress-
engineering strain curve, drawn from
the data in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress-
true strain curve, drawn from the data in
Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve has a
positive slope, indicating that the
material is becoming stronger as it is
strained. (d) True stress-true strain
curve plotted on log-log paper and
based on the corrected curve in Fig.
2.5c. The correction is due to the
triaxial state of stress that exists in the
necked region of a specimen.

K = strength coefficient
n = work-hardening exponent
Toughness = area under the
true stress-true strain curve
  K n
Strain Hardening Index

True strain at
which neck
forms
 Cold, Warm and Hot Working
• Table 3.1 Homologous temperature ranges for various processes

Hot working - above recrystallization temperature

recrystallization, grain growth occurs
Cold working - below recrystallization temperature
no recrystallization or grain growth, significant grain elongation and work hardening
results
Warm working - intermediate temperature.
Rcrystallization occurs, but little or no grain growth. Grains are equiaxed but smaller
than hot working.

PROCESS T/Tm
Cold working < 0.3
Warm working 0.3 to 0.5
Hot working > 0.6
 Recovery,
Recrystallization and
Grain Growth

FIGURE 3.16 Schematic illustration of

the effects of recovery, recrystallization,
and grain growth on mechanical
properties and shape and size of grains.
Note the formation of small new grains
during recrystallization. Source: G.
Sachs.
 Recrystallization and Annealing

Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the temperature of

previously cold worked material is raised above the recrystallization
temperature and allowed to cool slowly. A new grain structure is formed
with lower strength and increased ductility
During recyrstallization, the mechanical properties changed as a result
of cold working are also restored to their precold worked values.

constant
heat
treatment
time is
1 hour
 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
19
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

20
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

21
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

22
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
 d on  Kt
Ostwald Ripening
23