Course Code: 18CV56

Course Title: Highway Engineering

Topic: Highway geometric design

Delivered by: Yogananda

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 Contents

• Highway Geometric Design:

• Importance‐ terrain classification‐ design speed‐ factors affecting
geometric design.
• Cross sectional elements‐ right of way‐ carriageway‐ camber‐ kerbs‐
shoulders‐ width of formation‐ typical cross sections.
• Sight Distance‐ restrictions to sight distance‐ factors affecting sight
distances‐ PIEV theory stopping sight distance‐ overtaking sight
distance‐ intermediate sight distance‐ overtaking zones‐ examples‐
sight distance at intersections‐ geometric design of hill roads.
• Horizontal alignment‐ radius of curve‐ super elevation‐ extra widening‐
transition curve and its length‐ setback distances.
• Vertical alignment‐ rolling‐ limiting‐ exceptional and minimum
gradients‐ summit and valley curves

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 Lecture Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to

• Describe importance of geometric design
• Explain various elements of geometric design
• Design highway cross section elements

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 Importance of geometric design
• The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout
of visible features of the highway such as alignment, sight distance and
intersection
• The main objective of highway design is to provide optimum efficiency in
traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost

Geometric design of highways deals with following elements :

 Cross section elements
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal alignment details
 Vertical alignment details
 Intersection elements

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 Design controls and criteria
• Design speed
• Topography
• Traffic factors
• Design hourly volume and capacity
• Environmental and other factors
Design speed
• Design speed is the speed determined for design and correction of
physical features that influence the vehicle.
• It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of a highway.
• Almost all geometric elements of a road are dependent on the design
speed.
• In India different speed standards have been assigned depending
upon the class of road and type of terrain
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 Design controls and criteria

Design speed for rural highways

Design speed (kmph)
Road Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Classifica
tion Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.

NH and
SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 30 25 20 25 20

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 Design controls and criteria
Topography
• The topography influences the geometric design of highway
significantly.
• The design standards specified for various classes of roads are
different depending upon terrain classification.
• The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the
country across the alignment.
• The following classification is generally adopted by “IRC”.
Terrain Cross slope of the
Classification country in %
Plain 0 - 10
Rolling 10 - 25
Mountainous 25 - 60
Steep >60
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 Design controls and criteria
Traffic factors
• The traffic factors, which affect the geometric design of roads,
are the vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of
road users.
• Important vehicular characteristics, which affect traffic
behaviour, are the different vehicle classes such as passenger
cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles, etc. have different speed and
acceleration characteristics, apart from having different
dimensions and weights.
• Important human factors, which affect traffic behaviour,
include the physical, mental and psychological characteristics
of drivers and pedestrians.

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 Design controls and criteria
Design hourly volume and capacity
• The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time, low
traffic flow during off - peak hour and highest traffic flow
during peak hour.
• Uneconomical to design the roadway for the peak hour traffic
flow.
• Reasonable value of traffic volume is decided for the design
and this volume called the design hourly volume
Environmental and other factors
• Aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and
other local conditions should be given due consideration in
the design of road geometrics.

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 Highway cross section elements
• Pavement surface characteristics
• Camber
• Carriageway
• Traffic separators or Medians
• Kerbs
• Road margins
• Width of roadway
• Right of way
• Cross sections of roads
Pavement surface characteristics
• Friction
• Pavement unevenness
• Light reflecting characteristics
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 Friction
• The friction between the vehicle tyre and the surface is one of
the factor determine the operation speed and the distance
requirement in stopping and accelerating the vehicle.
• When a vehicle negotiating in a horizontal curve frictional force
counteract the centrifugal force governs the safe operating
speed.
• Frictional force plays a major role during the acceleration and
retardation of the vehicle.
• Maximum coefficient of friction comes into picture when the
breaking efficiency is high enough to almost arrest the rotation
of the wheels on application of breaks.
• IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4
depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as
0.15.
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 Friction
Skid
• Skid occurs when the wheel slide without revolving or when the
wheels partially revolve. When the breaks are applied, wheels are
locked partially or fully the vehicle moves forward then the
longitudinal skidding takes place. It varies from zero to 100 %
• While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve if the centrifugal force
is greater it drags the vehicle away from the path outwards and
skidding takes place is called lateral skidding. Lateral skidding is
considered to be most dangerous as vehicle goes out of control and
leads to accident.
Slip
• Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding
longitudinal movement along the road. Slipping usually occurs when
the vehicle rapidly accelerates from slow speed on pavement which
is either slippery or wet or when the road surface is loose with mud
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 Friction
Factors affecting the friction
• Type of pavement surface like cement concrete surface,
bituminous surface, Water bound macadam surface, etc.
• Condition of pavement like wet or dry, even or uneven, oil
spilled, smoothened or rough, mud or dry sand on pavement.
• Type and condition of tyre that is new with good treads or
smoothened and worn out tyre.
• Speed of vehicle
• Extent of break application or brake.
• Load and tyre pressure
• Temperature of tyre and pavement
• Type of skid
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 Pavement unevenness
• It is always desirable to have an even surface
• Even if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is
possible to develop unevenness due to pavement failures.
• Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding
comfort, safety, fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres.
• Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the
cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement
surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road.
• Unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered
as good, a value less than 2500 mm/km is satisfactory up to
speed of 100 kmph and value greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.

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 Light reflecting characteristics
• Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting
characteristics of the pavement surface.
• Glare caused by the reflection of headlight is considerably
more on wet pavement surface than on dry pavement.
• Light coloured or white pavement surfaces give good visibility
at night, but they produce glare and eye strain during bright
sun light.
• Black top pavement surfaces on the other hand should
provides poor visibility during the nights especially when the
surfaces wet.

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 Cross slope or camber
• It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface
• To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil
through pavement
• To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement
layer
• To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quick
as possible and to allow the pavement to get dry soon after the
rain
• It is expressed as a percentage or 1V:Nh

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 Cross slope or camber
Shape of the cross slope
– Parabolic shape (fast moving vehicle)
– Straight line
– Combination of parabolic and straight line

Too steep slope is not desirable because

of the fallowing reasons:
• Uncomfortable side thrust and unequal
wear of the tyres as well as road
surface
• Problem of toppling over highly laden
bullock cart and truck
• Tendency of most of vehicle travel
along the centre line 17
 Cross slope or camber

• Camber depends on the pavement surface and amount of

rainfall
Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
Types of road surface
Heavy Light
C. C. and high type bituminous
1 in 50 (2.0%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
surface
Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2.0%)
WBM and gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3.0%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)
Earth road 1 in 25 (4.0%) 1 in 33 (3.0%)

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 Cross slope or camber
Problems -1
• Design a straight line camber board for a two - lane national
highway provided with a high type bituminous surface in
heavy rainfall area.

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Cross slope or camber

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 Carriageway

• Surface of the roadway suitably

designed and constructed with road
metals (aggregates) to carry the
vehicular traffic is called carriageway
or pavement.
• width of carriageway or pavement
depends on the width of traffic lane
and number of lanes.
• The carriageway intended for one
line of traffic movement is called
"traffic lane".

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 Carriageway
• Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle
and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed
and safety.

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 Carriageway
• As per IRC specification, the maximum width of vehicle is
2.44m, minimum clearance of 0.68 m on both side in case of
single lane road, this requires minimum width of 3.8 m for a
single lane road.
• However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on both
side and 1.06 m in the centre. Therefore, a two lane road
require minimum width of 7 m.
Width of carriageway pavement as per IRC
Class of road Width of carriageway
Single lane 3.75 m
Two lanes without raised kerbs 7.0m
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5 m
Intermediate carriage 5.5 m
Multi - lane pavements 3.5 m / lane
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 Traffic separators or Medians
• Traffic separators or Medians are placed
between the lanes of highway to divide the
traffic moving in opposite directions.
• The main function of traffic separators is to
prevent head on collision between vehicles
moving in opposite directions.
• Channelize traffic into steams at
intersections
• Segregate slow traffic and to protect
pedestrians.
• IRC recommends a minimum desirable width
of 5 m for medians of rural highways, which
may be reduced to 3 m where land is
restricted.
• Minimum width of medians in urban area
1.2 m.
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 Kerb
• Kerbs indicate the boundary
between the carriage way and
the shoulder.
• Based on their function kerbs are
divided into four types
1. Low or mountable kerbs:
• It allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little
difficulty.
• The height of this kerb is about
10 cm above the pavement
edge with a slope to help the
vehicle to easily.

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 Kerb
2. Semi-barrier type kerb:
• When the pedestrian traffic is high,
these kerbs are provided.
• Their height is 15 cm above the
pavement edge.
• This type of kerb prevents
encroachment of parking vehicles,
but at acute emergency it is possible
to drive over this kerb with some
difficulty.

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 Kerb
3. Barrier type kerb:
• Designed to discourage vehicles
from leaving the pavement.
• Provided when there is
considerable amount of
pedestrian traffic.
• They are placed at a height of 20
cm above the pavement edge
with a steep batter.

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 Kerb
4. Submerged kerb:
• Used in rural roads.
• Provided at pavement
edges between the
pavement edge and
shoulders.
• They provide lateral
confinement and stability
to the pavement.

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 Road margins
• The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the
roadway can be generally called road margin.

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 Road margins
1. Shoulder:

• Shoulder is provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for
vehicles.
• It act as a service lane for vehicles that have broken down.
• The minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at the side of
the shoulder would have a clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement edge.
• IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width is 2.5 m.
• It should have a sufficient load bearing capacity even in wet weather.
• The surface of the shoulder should be rougher than the traffic lane so that
vehicles are discouraged to use the shoulder as a regular traffic.
• The colour should be different from that of the pavement so as to be distinct.
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 Road margins
Parking lane:
• These are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking
• As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed as
it is safer for moving vehicle.
• It should have sufficient width say 3m

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 Road margins
Frontage road:
• These are provided to give access to properties along an
important highway with control access to express way or free
way.
• It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by
separator.
• These roads are provided to avoid congestion in the
expressways.

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 Road margins
Driveway:
• It connect the highway with commercial
establishment like fuel stations, service
stations etc.
• It should be located away from the
intersection

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 Road margins
Cycle track:
• It provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on
the road is very high
• A minimum width of 2m is provided for cycle track

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 Road margins
Footpath:
• These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as well
as pedestrian traffic are heavy
• To protect the pedestrian and decrease accident
• Minimum width of 1.5m is provided

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 Road margins
Guard rail
• It is provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is
constructed on a fill exceeds 3m
• It is also provided on horizontal curve so as to provide a better
night visibility of the curves under the head light of the
vehicle

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 Width of the roadway or formation width

• It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement

including separators if any and the shoulders

Roadway width in m
Road
Plain and rolling Mountainous and
classification
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 12 6.25 - 8.80
MDR 9 4.75
ODR 7.5 - 9 4.75
VR 7.5 4.0
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Width of the roadway or formation width

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 Right of way

• It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its
alignment
• It depends on the importance of the road and possible future
development
• It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of
adjoining land invariably increases very much , soon after the
new highway is constructed
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 Right of way
Normal right of way for open areas (rural roads)
Land width in m
Road Mountainous
Plain and
classification and steep
rolling terrain
terrain
NH/SH 45 24
MDR 25 18
ODR 15 15
VR 12 9
Built-up areas
NH/SH 30 20
MDR 20 15
ODR 15 12
VR 10 9 42