Genetics and

Biotechnology
Review
Which of the following statements about prokaryotic chromosomes is
true?
A. Prokaryotes have at least two chromosomes.
B. Prokaryotic chromosomes consist of a circular DNA molecule.
C. Prokaryotic chromosomes include histone and nonhistone proteins.
D. Prokaryotic chromosomes are made of DNA wrapped tightly
around histone proteins.
Review
Which of the following statements about prokaryotic chromosomes
is true?
A. Prokaryotes have at least two chromosomes.
B. Prokaryotic chromosomes consist of a circular DNA molecule.
C. Prokaryotic chromosomes include histone and nonhistone
proteins.
D. Prokaryotic chromosomes are made of DNA wrapped tightly
around histone proteins.
Review

Crossing-over occurs during which process?

A. Mitosis
B. Meiosis 1
C. Meiosis 2
D. Interphase
Review

Crossing-over occurs during which process?

A. Mitosis
B. Meiosis 1
C. Meiosis 2
D. Interphase
Review
In which phase of mitosis do chromatids separate and become
individual chromosomes?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase/Cytokinesis
Review
In which phase of mitosis do chromatids separate and become
individual chromosomes?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase/Cytokinesis
Review

What process occurs that leads to the decrease in the cell's DNA
mass?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase/Cytokinesis
Review

What process occurs that leads to the decrease in the cell's DNA
mass?
A. Prophase
B. Metaphase
C. Anaphase
D. Telophase/Cytokinesis
Review

Prokaryote : binary fission :: eukaryotes :

A. Mitosis
B. Cytokinesis
C. Crossing-Over
D. Genetic recombinant
Review

Prokaryote : binary fission :: eukaryotes :

A. Mitosis
B. Cytokinesis
C. Crossing-Over
D. Genetic recombinant
Review

Which type of cell division is shown in the diagram?

A. Mitosis
B. Meiosis
C. Binary fission
D. Sexual reproduction
Review

Which type of cell division is shown in the diagram?

A. Mitosis
B. Meiosis
C. Binary fission
D. Sexual reproduction
Introduction
Introduction
Mendel’s Legacy
What is Genetics?
- It is the field of biology devoted to understanding how
characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring.
Genetics was founded with the work of Gregor Johann
Mendel.
- Father of Genetics
Mendel’s Legacy
Who is Mendel?
- Gregor Mendel, at age of 21
(1843), entered a monastery in
Brnn, Austria.
- The task given to him gave
him time to think and to
observe the growth of a plant.
Mendel’s Legacy
Who is Mendel?
- In 1851, he entered University
of Vienna to study Science and
Mathematics.
- His mathematics courses
included training in the then-
new field of statistics.
Mendel’s Legacy
Who is Mendel?
- Mendel’s knowledge of
statistics later proved valuable
in his research on heredity—
the transmission of
characteristics from parents to
offspring. When Mendel
returned to the monastery, he
taught in a high school and
also kept a garden plot.
Mendel’s Legacy
Who is Mendel?
- Mendel is remembered most
for his experiments with Pisum
sativum, a species of garden
peas.
Mendel’s Garden Peas
- Mendel observed seven
characteristics of pea plants.

● A trait is a genetically
determined variant of a
characteristic, such as yellow
flower color.
Mendel’s Traits of Pea
Mendel’s Garden Peas
● Mendel controlled the breeding
of his pea plants and tracked
the inheritance of traits by
transferring pollen from the
anthers of one plant to the
stigma of another plant.
Mendel’s Garden Peas
● Purple-flowering plants grew
from most of the seeds
obtained from purple-
flowering plants but that white-
flowering plants grew from
some of the seeds of
purpleflowering plants.
Mendel’s Garden Peas
● And when experimenting with
the characteristic of plant
height, he observed that while
tall plants grew from most of
the seeds obtained from tall
plants, short plants grew from
some of the seeds obtained
from tall plants.
Mendel’s Methods
● Mendel was able to observe how traits were passed from one
generation to the next by carefully controlling how pea plants
were pollinated.
● Pollination occurs when pollen grains produced in the male
reproductive parts of a flower, called the anthers, are
transferred to the female reproductive part of a flower, called
the stigma.
Mendel’s Methods
● Self-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the
anthers of a flower to the stigma of either that flower or
another flower on the same plant.
● Cross-pollination occurs between flowers of two plants.
● Pea plants normally reproduce through self-pollination
Mendel’s Experiments
● He began by growing plants that were true-breeding for each
trait.
● Plants that are true-breeding, or pure, for a trait always
produce offspring with that trait when they self-pollinate.
○ For example, pea plants that are true-breeding for the trait
of yellow pods self pollinate to produce offspring that
have yellow pods.
○ He eventually obtained 14 true-breeding plant types, one
for each of the 14 traits observed.
Mendel’s Experiments
● He called the true breeding parents the P generation.
● He cross-pollinated by transferring pollen from the anthers of
one plant to the stigma of another plant. For example, if he
wanted to cross a plant that was true-breeding for the trait of
yellow pods with one that was true breeding for the trait of
green pods, he first removed the anthers from the plant that
produced green pods.
Mendel’s Experiments
● When the plants matured, Mendel recorded the number of
each type of offspring produced by each cross. He called the
offspring of the P generation the first filial generation, or F1
generation.
● He then allowed the flowers from the F1 generation to self-
pollinate and collected the seeds. Mendel called the plants in
this generation the second filial generation, or F2 generation.
Mendel’s Experiments
Mendel’s Crosses and Results
Mendel’s Crosses and Results
Mendel’s Crosses and Results
Mendel’s Legacy
● Mendel’s conclude that one factor in
a pair may prevent the other from
having an effect.
● Mendel hypothesized that the trait
appearing in the F1 generation was
controlled by a dominant factor
because it masked, or dominated, the
factor for the other trait in the pair.
Mendel’s Legacy
● He thought that the trait that did not
appear in the F1 generation but
reappeared in the F2 generation was
controlled by a recessive factor.
Mendel’s Discoveries
● The Law of Segregation: offspring acquire one hereditary
factor from each parent 2.
● The Law of Independent Assortment: different traits have
an equal opportunity of occurring together .
● The Law of Dominance: offspring will inherit the dominant
trait, and can only inherit the recessive trait if they inherit both
recessive factors
Genetics and Biotechnology
● Molecular genetics is the study of the structure and function
of chromosomes and genes.
● A chromosome is a threadlike structure made up of DNA. A
gene is the segment of DNA on a chromosome that controls a
particular hereditary trait. Because chromosomes occur in
pairs, genes also occur in pairs.
● Each of two or more alternative forms of a gene is called an
allele.
15 mins break
Genetic Crosses
Genotype and Phenotype
● Genotype
○ The genotype consists of the alleles that the organism
inherits from its parents.
○ For example, the genotype of the white-flowering pea
plant in consists of two recessive alleles for white flower
color, represented as pp. The genotype of a purple-
flowering pea plant may be either PP or Pp. Either of
these two genotypes would result in a pea plant that has
purple flowers because the P allele is dominant.
Genotype and Phenotype
● Phenotype
○ An organism’s appearance is its phenotype (FEE-noh-
TIEP). The phenotype of a PP or a Pp pea plant is purple
flowers, whereas the phenotype of a pp pea plant is white
flowers.
Genotype and Phenotype
The flower color genotype
of the pea plant on the left
is pp. The plant’s
phenotype is white flowers.
The flower color phenotype
of the pea plant on the right
is purple flowers. The
plant’s genotype is either
Pp or PP.
Genotype and Phenotype
● When both alleles of a pair are alike, the organism is said to
be homozygous for that characteristic. An organism may be
homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive.
● For example, a pea plant that is homozygous dominant for
flower color has the genotype PP. A pea plant that is
homozygous recessive for flower color has the genotype pp.
Genotype and Phenotype
● When the two alleles in the pair are different, the organism is
heterozygous for that characteristic.
● Example, a pea plant that is heterozygous for flower color has
the genotype Pp.
Probability
Probability is the likelihood that a specific event will occur. A
probability may be expressed as a decimal, a percentage, or a
fraction. Probability is determined by the following equation:
Probability: Example
Mendel’s experiments, the dominant trait of yellow seed color
appeared in the F2 generation 6,022 times. The recessive trait of
green seed color appeared 2,001 times. The total number of
individuals was 8,023 (6,022 + 2,001). Using the probability
equation above we can determine that the probability that the
dominant trait will appear in a similar cross is
Probability: Example

The probability that the recessive trait will appear in an F2

generation is
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
A cross in which only one characteristic is tracked is a
monohybrid cross. The offspring of a monohybrid cross are
called monohybrids. A cross between a pea plant that is true-
breeding for producing purple flowers and one that is true-
breeding for producing white flowers is an example of a
monohybrid cross.
PP x pp
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Punnett Square is used by biologist to aid them in predicting the
probable distribution of inherited traits in the offspring.
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 1: Homozygous x Homozygous
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 1: Homozygous x Homozygous
A pea plant homozygous for purple flowers
that is crossed with a pea plant
homozygous for white flowers will
produce only purple-flowering offspring.
Note that all of the offspring, called
monohybrids, are heterozygous for flower
color
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 2: Homozygous x Heterozygous
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 2: Homozygous x Heterozygous
Crossing a guinea pig homozygous for
black coat color with one heterozygous for
black coat color produces all blackcoated
monohybrid offspring. Note that half of the
monohybrid offspring are predicted to be
homozygous for coat color.
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 3: Heterozygous x Heterozygous
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 3: Heterozygous x
Heterozygous
The probable results of crossing two
rabbits that are heterozygous for black coat
color are 50 percent heterozygous black
individuals, 25 percent homozygous black
individuals, and 25 percent homozygous
brown individuals.
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 4: Testcross
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 4: Testcross
Perform a testcross, in which an
individual of unknown genotype is
crossed with a homozygous recessive
individual. A testcross can determine the
genotype of any individual whose
phenotype expresses the dominant trait.
Predicting Results of Monohybrid
Crosses
Example 4: Testcross
If a black guinea pig is crossed with a
brown guinea pig and even one of the
offspring is brown, the black guinea pig is
heterozygous for coat color.
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
A dihybrid cross is a cross in which two characteristics are
tracked. The offspring of dihybrid cross are called dihybrids.
For example, to predict the results of a cross in which both seed
texture and seed color are tracked, you have to consider how four
alleles from each parent can combine.
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 1: Homozygous x Homozygous
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 1: Homoxygous x
Homozygous
Suppose that you want to predict the
results of a cross between a pea plant that
is homozygous for round, yellow seeds
and one that is homozygous for wrinkled,
green seeds.
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 1: Homoxygous x
Homozygous
From the table:
- Round seeds is dominant over
wrinkled
- Yellow seeds is dominant over green
seeds
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 1: Homoxygous x
Homozygous
Notice that the genotype of all of the
offspring of this cross will be
heterozygous for both traits (RrYy);
therefore, all of the offspring will have
round, yellow seed phenotypes.
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 2: Heterozygous x Heterozygous
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 2: Heterozygous x
Heterozygous
Still, using round and wrinkled, and
yellow and green seeds.
Predicting Results of Dihybrid
Crosses
Example 2: Heterozygous x Heterozygous
- 9/16 that have round, yellow seeds
(genotypes RRYY, RRYy, RrYY, and RrYy)
- 3/16 that have round, green seeds
(genotypes RRyy and Rryy)
- 3/16 that have wrinkled, yellow seeds
(genotypes rrYY and rrYy)
- 1/16 that have wrinkled, green seeds
(genotype rryy)