Unit 11.

Animal Physiology
11.1 Antibody production and vaccination
Antigen- Any foreign molecule that can trigger an immune response ; usually
found on the surface of cancer cells, parasites and bacteria, on pollen grains and
on the envelopes of viruses.

Influenza virus
Unique surface molecules are used in several ways:
● Viruses recognize and bind to their host using molecules on the surface of the
host’s cells
● Living organisms recognize their own cells and cell types using surface
molecules
● Living organism recognize cells that are not part of the organism and also
viruses by surface molecules that are not present in that organism (foreign).
These molecules trigger the production of antibodies, so they are antigens.
Antigens on Red blood cells
Antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a
person with a different blood group.
Activity: Virtual Simulation
Identifying blood type of the patient and the blood type of appropriate donor
https://accessdl.state.al.us/AventaCourses/access_courses/virtuallabs_ua_v21/01
_unit/01-01/01-01_learn.htm
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

Stages in antibody production

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE
The role of antibodies Tips of Variable region- antigen binding sites

Constant region- part of the molecule that aids the

destruction of the pathogen
What happens if antigens like plant pollen get into the body?

Some antigens cause a type of white blood cell (called a mast cell) to
release a small protein called histamine. Histamine causes blood
vessels to become more permeable leading to leakage of fluid into
tissues, and swelling of the tissues. This leads to common allergic
symptoms:

● A runny nose
● Watery eyes
● Nasal congestion
 Read this
nice simple explanation of histamine in response to the presence of dust mites fr
om Cells Alive
https://www.cellsalive.com/mite1.htm

Answer the following questions:

1. What type of symptoms are produced in the nose, when histamine is released by cells
of the nose?
2. What is the effect of histamine on blood vessels?
3. How could the release of histamine help the macrophages and lymphocytes of the
immune system fight a potential infection?
Histamine and Allergies
Two types of cell in the body secrete histamine:

● Basophils, which are a type of white blood

cell
● Mast cells, which are similar to basophils
but are found in connective tissues
Monoclonal Antibodies
- the antibodies that are harvested from a single clone of B-lymphocytes
Examples:

Herceptin as a cancer drug

pregnancy test

- This distinguishes it from the "polyclonal response" which is more common in the immune
system.
Step in the production of monoclonal antibodies

1. Induce an immune response in an animal’s immune

system using the desired antigen
2. Harvest B-lymphocytes from the spleen which are
actively making antibodies.
3. Fuse tumour cells (myeloma cells) with the B-
lymphocytes
4. Grow these hybridoma cells and harvest the antibodies
5. Modify the antibodies for the specific treatment /
diagnosis
Production of Monoclonal antibodies
Pregnancy Test- Monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies to hCG are used in pregnancy test kits.
● hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is a hormone released by the embryo
(and placenta) and is detected with a pregnancy test kit in a urine sample
from a pregnant mother
● The kit contains monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG
● when binding happens, a chain of reaction happens that results in a visual
sign (colored band) that hCG has been detected in the urine
Activity page 475

1. Explain how a blue band appears at point C if the woman is pregnant.

2. Explain why a blue band does not appear at point C if the woman is not
pregnant.
3. Explain the reasons for the use of immobilized monoclonal antibodies at point
D, even though they do not indicate whether a woman is pregnant or not.
11.2 Movement
Muscles and Movement
Muscles provide the forces that move animal bodies. As muscles only exert force
when they contract and not when they are relax and lengthen, a muscle can only
cause a movement in one direction. For opposite movements there has to be a
pair of muscles that exert force in opposite directions- an antagonistic pair of
muscles.
Muscles are typically elongated structures, with tendons forming attachments at
both ends. One end of the muscle is the anchorage , which is a firm point of
attachment that does not move when the muscles contracts. Bones are used as
anchorages in humans and other vertebrates. In insects and other arthropods the
exoskeleton provides the anchorage. The opposite end of the muscle from the
anchorage is the insertion. Bones and exoskeletons are gain used for muscle
insertion. Muscle contraction causes the bone or section of exoskeleton forming
the insertion to move, together with the surrounding tissues. Bones and
exoskeleton can change the size and direction of the force exerted by a muscle,
so they act as levers.
Skeletal muscles are antagonistic
 SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Junctions between bones are called joints. Some joints
are fixed, such as joints between the plates of bone in
the skull. Other joints allow movement (articulation).
Most of these are synovial joints. They have three main
parts:
● Cartilage covering the surface of the bones to
reduce friction where they could rub against each
other.
● Synovial fluid between the cartilage-covered
surfaces, to lubricate the joint and further reduce
friction.
● Joint capsule that seals the joints and holds in
the synovial fluid.

There are also ligaments which are tough cords of

tissue connecting the bones on opposite sides of a
joint. They restrict movement and help to prevent
dislocation. Ligaments ensure that certain movements
can occur at a considerable movement in one plane:
bending (flexion) or straightening (extension), but little
movemnt in the other two planes
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
MUSCLE
Skeletal muscle is attached to bone and
causes movement of animal bodies. It consists
of large multinucleate cells called muscle
fibres. Within each muscle fibre are cylindrical
structures called myofibrils and around these
is a specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum-
the sarcoplasmic reticulum. There are also
mitochondria between the myofibrils.

Myofibrils consist of repeating units called

sarcomeres, which have light and dark bands.
The light and dark bands extend across all the
myofibrils in a muscle, giving it a striated
(striped) appearance. Each sarcomere is able
to contract and exert force.
Structure of muscle fibres
Muscle contraction
● The contraction of the skeletal muscle is
achieved by the sliding of actin and
myosin filaments over each other. This
pulls the ends of the sarcomeres together,
making the muscle shorter.
● The sliding of the filaments is an active
process and requires the use of active
process and requires the use of energy
from ATP.
● A repeated cycle of events is used to
contract muscle sufficiently to move part of
an animal body in the desired way.
Muscle contraction
● When a motor neuron stimulates a striated muscle fiber, calcium ions are
released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum inside the fibre. The calcium binds
to troponin, a protein that is associated with the actin filaments in muscle.
● The calcium causes the shape of troponin to change and this causes the
movement of tropomyosin, another protein associated with actin, exposing
binding sites on actin. This allows myosin heads to form cross-bridges by
binding to actin.
● Radioactive calcium has been used to investigate the control of muscle
contraction.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZuy356qkPM
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/general-education/anatomy-and-
physiology2/ap2904/muscle-cell-contraction