Lecture 9-CS-Ch07

Chapter 7
Software
Engineering
© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley.

All rights reserved
Chapter 7: Software Engineering
• 7.1 The Software Engineering Discipline

• 7.2 The Software Life Cycle
• 7.3 Software Engineering Methodologies
• 7.4 Modularity
• 7.5 Tools of the Trade
• 7.6 Testing
• 7.7 Documentation
• 7.8 Software Ownership and Liability
© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-2

The Software Engineering Discipline
• The branch of computer science that seeks principles

to guide the development of large, complex software
systems.
• The problems faced are more than enlarged versions of
those problems
– efforts of more than one person
– over an extended period of time
– during which the requirements of the proposed system may
be altered
– the personnel assigned to the project may change.

• Distinct from other engineering fields

– Prefabricated components
– Metrics
• Practitioners versus Theoreticians

• Professional Organizations: ACM, IEEE, etc.
– Codes of professional ethics
– Standards

• Distinct from other engineering fields

– Prefabricated components, Automobile Example
• In the past, previously designed software components were domain
specific so, their use as generic components was limited.
• The result is that complex software systems have historically been
built from scratch.
• significant progress is being made in this regard, although more
work remains to be done
– Measuring Quantities / Metrics
• Cost, Complexity
• Quality, Mean time between the failures (Mechanical Devices)

• Research in software engineering is currently

progressing on two levels
– Practitioners, work toward developing techniques for
immediate application.
– Theoreticians, search for underlying principles and theories
on which more stable techniques can someday be
constructed.
• The need for progress by both practitioners and

theoreticians is enormous.
• Our society has become addicted to computer systems

and their associated software.
• Yet there continue to be major problems with the
reliability of these systems.
• Software errors have caused such disasters and near

disasters as being interpreted as a nuclear attack,
– a one day loss of $5 million by the Bank of New York,
– the loss of space probes,
– radiation overdoses that have killed and paralyzed.
Computer Aided Software
Engineering (CASE) tools
• Project planning
• Project management
• Documentation
• Prototyping and simulation
• Interface design
• Programming

Integrated Development
Environments (IDEs)
• Indeed systems known as integrated development

environments (IDEs) combine tools for developing
software (editors, compilers, debugging tools, and so on)
into a single, integrated package.
– A prime example of such systems are those for developing
applications for smartphones.
– These not only provide the programming tools necessary to write
and debug the software but
– also provide simulators that, by means of graphical displays, allow
a programmer to see how the software being developed would
actually perform on a phone.

Figure 7.1 The software life cycle
The difference is that, in the case of

•other products, the maintenance phase tends to be a repair
process,
•whereas in the case of software, the maintenance phase
tends to consist of correcting or updating.
The software life cycle contd…
• Once software is developed, it enters a

cycle of being used and maintained
• Maintenance phase tends to consist of

correcting or updating
• The little effort during the development of

software can make a tremendous
difference when modifications are required
Figure 7.2 The development
phase of the software life cycle

Requirement Analysis Stage
• Requirement Analysis the goal of which is to

specify what services the proposed system will
provide,
• To identify any conditions (time constraints,

security…) on those services, and to define
how the outside world will interact with the
system

• Requirement analysis involves significant input

from the stakeholders of the proposed system.
• As needs of the potential user are identified,

they are complied to form a set of requirements
that the new system must satisfy.

contd…
• After the system requirements are identified,

they are converted into more technical
specifications.
• For example, the requirement that data be

restricted to authorized personnel might
become the specification that the system will
not respond until an approved eight-digit
password has been typed
contd…
• Ideally, the analysis stage of software

development concludes with a document, often
called a software requirements document, that
identifies the requirements and specifications of
the proposed system

Design Stage
• Whereas analysis concentrates on what the

proposed system should do, design concentrates
on how the system will accomplish those goals.
• If the project were to construct a shopping

center rather than a software system, this would
be the stage at which an architect, having
established the project's requirements, would
develop detailed plans for the site.
Design Stage
• Methodologies and tools (discussed later)

• Human interface

Implementation Stage
• Implementation involves the actual writing of

programs, creation of data files, and
development of databases
• From a traditional point of view,

implementation is seen as a bottom-up process
in which individual modules are programmed
and then combined to form larger components
of the system
Implementation Stage
• Create system from design

– Write programs
– Create data files
– Develop databases
• Role of “software analyst” versus
“programmer”

Implementation Stage contd…
• It is at the implementation stage that we see the

distinction between the tasks of a software
analyst and programmer.
• The former is a person involved with the entire

development process, perhaps with an emphasis
on the analysis and design steps.
• The latter is a person involved primarily with
the implementation step.
Testing Stage contd…
• Two types of Testing

- Validation testing involves confirming that the
software system as implemented conforms to the
requirements and specifications identified during
the original analysis.
- Defect testing, involves identifying and correcting
errors.

Testing Stage contd…
• Validation testing might confirm that the

system does, in fact, produce a properly
formatted summary of a bank customer's
account,
• Whereas defect testing might reveal that the
account balance appearing in the report is
incorrect

Testing Stage (summary)
• Validation testing
– Confirm that system meets specifications
• Defect testing
– Find bugs

Software Engineering Methodologies
• Waterfall Model
• Incremental Model
– Prototyping (Evolutionary vs. Throwaway)
• Open-source Development
• Extreme Programming

Water Fall Model
• The waterfall model is a sequential design

process, often used in software development
processes
• The progress is steadily downwards (like a
waterfall) through the phases of Conception,
Initiation, Analysis, Design, Construction,
Testing, Production/Implementation, and
Maintenance
Water Fall Model contd…

Incremental Model
• Incremental model in software engineering is a

one which combines the elements of waterfall
model which are then applied in an iterative
manner.
• It basically delivers a series of releases called

increments which provide progressively more
functionality for the client as each increment is
delivered.
Incremental Model contd…
• In incremental model of software engineering

waterfall model is repeatedly applied in each
increment.
• The incremental model applies linear sequences

in a required pattern as calendar time passes.
Each linear sequence produces an increment in
the work.

Incremental Model contd…

Incremental Model Advantages
• Initial product delivery is faster

• Lower initial delivery cost
• core product is developed first i.e. main
functionality is added in the first increment
• With each release a new feature is added to the
product
• Customer can respond feature and review the
product
Incremental Model Disadvantages
• Requires good analysis

• resulting cost may exceed the cost of the
organization
• Each phase of an iteration is rigid and do not
overlap each other
• As additional functionally is added to the
product, problems may arise related to system
architecture which were not evident is earlier
prototypes
Open Source Stage
• This is the means by which much of today's

free software is produced
• The most prominent example is the Linux
operating system

Open Source Stage contd…
• The open-source development of a software

package proceeds as follows:
– A single author writes an initial version of software
and posts the source code and it documentation on
the internet
– It can be downloaded and used by others without
charge, they are able to modify or enhance the
software to fit their own needs or correct errors that
they find
Open Source Stage contd…
– They report these changes to the original author,

who incorporates them into the posted version of
the software, making this extended version
available for further modification

Extreme Programming
• The extreme programming(XP) model,

software is developed by a team of less than a
dozen individuals working in a communal work
space where they freely share ideas and assist
each other in the development project

Extreme Programming
• The software is developed incrementally by

means of repeated daily cycles of analyzing,
designing implementing and testing
• New expanded versions of the software

package appear on a regular basis, each of
which can be evaluated by clients and used to
point toward further increments

Coupling versus Cohesion
• Coupling
– Control coupling
– Data coupling
• Cohesion
– Logical cohesion
– Functional cohesion

Coupling versus Cohesion
• Coupling- Coupling is the measure of the degree of

interdependence between the modules. A good software will
have low coupling.
• Control coupling -which occurs when a module passes control
of execution to another.
• Data coupling- which refers to the sharing of data between
modules. If two modules interact with the same item of data,
then modifications made to one module may affect the other.

Cont…
• Cohesion
• Cohesion is a measure of the degree to which the
elements of the module are functionally related. It is
the degree to which all elements directed towards
performing a single task are contained in the
component. Basically, cohesion is the internal glue
that keeps the module together. A good software
design will have high cohesion.

Cont…
• Logical cohesion- A weak form of cohesion is known as

logical cohesion. This is the cohesion within a module induced
by the fact that its internal elements perform activities logically
similar in nature.
• Functional cohesion- A stronger form of cohesion is
known as functional cohesion, which means that all the parts
of the module are focused on the performance of a single
activity.

Figure 7.7 Logical and functional cohesion
within an object

Tools of the Trade
• Entity-Relationship Diagram
– One-to-one relation
– One-to-many relation
– Many-to-many relation

Entity Relation Diagram
• An ER model is an abstract way of describing

a database
• stores data in tables, some of the data in these
tables point to data in other tables
• entry in the database could point to several

entries

Entity Relation Diagram contd…
• Diagrams created to design these entities and

relationships are called entity–relationship
diagrams or ER diagrams.

Figure 7.9 A simple entity-
relationship diagram

Entity–relationship Modeling
contd…
• An entity may be defined as a thing which is

recognized as being capable of an independent
existence and which can be uniquely identified
• An entity may be a physical object such as a

house or a car, an event such as a house sale or
a car service, or a concept such as a customer
transaction or order

contd…
• Entity diagram

contd…
• A relationship captures how entities are related

to one another
• Relationships can be thought of as verbs,
linking two or more nouns

contd…
• Examples: an owns relationship between a

company and a computer,
a supervises relationship between an employee
and a department, a performs relationship
between an artist and a song,
a proved relationship between a mathematician
and a theorem.

contd…
• Entities and relationships can both have

attributes.
• Examples: an employee entity might have
a Social Security Number (SSN) attribute;
the proved relationship may have
a date attribute.

contd…
• Attributes

contd…
• Cardinality specifies how many instances of

an entity relate to one instance of another
entity.

Figure 7.10 One-to-one, one-to-many,
and many-to-many relationships between
entities of types X and Y

Documentation
A software system is of little use unless people can

learn to use and maintain it.
Hence, documentation is an important part of a final
software package, and its development is, therefore, an
important topic in software engineering.
Software documentation serves three purposes, leading

to three categories of documentation: user
documentation, system documentation, and technical
documentation.

User documentation
The purpose of user documentation is to explain the

features of the software and describe how to use
them. It is intended to be read by the user of the
software and is therefore expressed in the terminology
of the application.

System documentation
The purpose of system documentation is to describe the

software’s internal composition so that the software can
be maintained later in its life cycle.
A major component of system documentation is the
source version of all the programs in the system.

Cont…
It is important that these programs be presented in a

readable format, which is why software engineers
support the use of well designed, high-level
programming languages.

Technical documentation
The purpose of technical documentation is to

describe how a software system should be installed and
serviced (such as adjusting operating parameters,
installing updates, and reporting problems back to the
software’s developer).

Software Ownership
• Copyright
• A copyright notice clearly identifies ownership,
the personnel authorized to use the work, and
other restrictions.

Cont…
• A software license is a legal agreement

between the owner and user of a software
product that grants the user certain permissions
to use the product without transferring
ownership rights to the intellectual property.

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Chapter 7

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley.

• 7.1 The Software Engineering Discipline

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-2

• The branch of computer science that seeks principles

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-3

• Distinct from other engineering fields

• Practitioners versus Theoreticians

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-4

• Distinct from other engineering fields

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-5

• Research in software engineering is currently

• The need for progress by both practitioners and

• Our society has become addicted to computer systems

• Software errors have caused such disasters and near

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-8

• Indeed systems known as integrated development

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-9

The difference is that, in the case of

• Once software is developed, it enters a

• Maintenance phase tends to consist of

• The little effort during the development of

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-12

• Requirement Analysis the goal of which is to

• To identify any conditions (time constraints,

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-13

• Requirement analysis involves significant input

• As needs of the potential user are identified,

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-14

• After the system requirements are identified,

• For example, the requirement that data be

• Ideally, the analysis stage of software

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-16

• Whereas analysis concentrates on what the

• If the project were to construct a shopping

• Methodologies and tools (discussed later)

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-18

• Implementation involves the actual writing of

• From a traditional point of view,

• Create system from design

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-20

• It is at the implementation stage that we see the

• The former is a person involved with the entire

• Two types of Testing

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-22

• Validation testing might confirm that the

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-23

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-24

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-25

• The waterfall model is a sequential design

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-27

• Incremental model in software engineering is a

• It basically delivers a series of releases called

• In incremental model of software engineering

• The incremental model applies linear sequences

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-29

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-30

• Initial product delivery is faster

• Requires good analysis

• This is the means by which much of today's

© 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved 0-33

• The open-source development of a software

– They report these changes to the original author,