An Overview of Ecology

Ecology (from the Greek oikos meaning house or dwelling, and

logos meaning discourse) is the study of the distributions, abundance,
relations, and the interactions of organisms with each other and their
environment. Ecology is also the study of ecosystems. Ecosystems
describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different
scales of organization . Since Ecology refers to any form of biodiversity ,
ecologist research everything from a tiny bacteria’s role in nutrient
recycling to the effects of tropical rain forest on the earth’s atmosphere.
Ecology is closely related to the disciplines of physiology, evolution,
genetics and behavior.
The Four Main Levels of Organization in
Ecology
• 1. Species. A group of individuals with the same gene pool or genetic
characteristics and is capable of interbreeding with one another.
• 2. Population. A group of same species occupying a specific
geographic area and time.
• 3. Community. A group of different populations distributed into a
specific geographical area.
• 4. Ecosystem. Different communities working as a unit, interacting
with both its physical and biological environment.
The Four regions of the earth
• The region of the earth, which is made up of interacting ecosystem
and where all possible life exists is called Biosphere. Other regions of
the earth where the biosphere interact with are the atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Atmosphere

Biosphere
Lithosphere Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is a thin gaseous layer that surrounds the earth. It is
composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,and 1% water vapor,argon
and carbon dioxide and other gases.The atmosphere also contains
helium, Neon, methane, and Nitrous oxide gases in trace amounts.
Ozone is one of the very important trace gases which absorb harmful
Ultraviolet(UV) radiation from the sun.
• Layers of atmosphere: Troposphere, Stratosphere, mesosphere,
Thermosphere, Exosphere
Lithosphere
• Lithosphere is the land part of the earth’s surface. It comprises 25% of
the earth’s surface.
• Examples: high mountain ranges,hills, plains,
valleys,volcanoes,plateus.
Hydrosphere
• Hydrosphere is the water part of the earth’s surface.It comprises
almost 75% of the earth.
• Examples: Oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, ponds,waterfalls,brooks.
Ecology and Environmental Science
• Ecology and environmental science are closely related disciplines, and
familiarity with the principles of one is essential to fully understanding the
other.Both sciences provide very important information about nature and
what people can do better protect the planet and conserve resources.

• Understanding both ecology and environmental science is essential in

formulating laws and policies regarding conservation.When governments and
industries set new standards, they usually consult professionals with
background in ecology and environmental science to provide expert advice.
Steps of the Scientific Method
• 1. Define or State a problem/Question.

Develop a question or problem based from the observed event or

natural phenomenon. The defined problem should be limited in scope
and properly defined to be manageable and to be able come up with
significant solutions to it.
2.Formulate Hypotheses.
• Design a temporary working explanations or tentative solutions to
your problem. The hypotheses are usually based on prior
observations or derived from theories based on such observations.
3. Collect Data.
Gather data related to the stated hypotheses. Data could be
qualitative(data can be perceived by the senses, such as color, texture,
taste, gender etc.) or quantitative( numerical data such as, height,
weight, age, etc.)
4. Test the Hypotheses.
• Perform further observations and experimentations to test the
reliabilty and validity of a hypotheses. Reliability has to do with the
quality of measurement. Its everyday sense, reliability is the
“consistency” or “repeatability” of your measure or is concerned with
the accuracy of the actual measuring instrument or procedure.
Validity on the other hand is concerned with the study’s success at
measuring what is set out to be measured.
5. Formulate a Conclusion or Generalization.
• Draw a conclusion from the analyzed data. A conclusion is a
statement whether the hypothesis under test is accepted or rejected.
Such conclusion must be purely based on facts demonstrated in the
experiment. The conclusion can be tentative or firm, depending on
the investigator’s confidence in the strength of the evidence.
 Chapter 2. Ecosystem
An ecosystem- refers to an interacting group of natural elements and the
organisms in a given environment. It is a unit of interrelationships between and
among living things and non-living things. It possesses both living(biotic) and non-
living (abiotic) components of the environment .All the living parts of the
environment are influenced by the non-living components, which include, wind,
sunlight, inorganic and organic nutrients, soil, water, temperature, and living space.
Living things respond and adapt the non-living conditions in their environment to
maintain their homeostasis, or their steady state condition.
Types of Ecosystem:
Terrestrial-forest, grassland,tundra, desert,
Acquatic- marine (ocean,seas),fresh( lakes,rivers, ponds)
Biotic Components of Ecosystems
• - bacteria
• -protists and algae
• -fungi
• -plants
• -animals
Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem

• -Sunlight
• -Water
• -Temperature
• -Wind
• -Organic and Inorganic nutrients
• -Soil
• -living space
Activity: Identify and list down the biotic and abiotic components in the
following ecosystem.(15 mins)

• 1.forest
• 2. grassland
• 3. desert
• 4. ocean
• 5. pond
Classifications of Living Organisms (Biotic
factors)
A. Autotrophs-(Plants)
-require only inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source to
produce organic nutrients for their own use and
indirectly for all the other members of ecosystems.
- they are called producers because they produce energy.
-Photosynthetic organisms produce most of the organic
nutrients for the biosphere
B. Heterotrophs
• Heterotrophs
-Need a performed source of organic nutrients.
-They are called consumers because they consume food.
-Herbivores-animals that graze directly on plants or algae.
-Carnivores- feed on other animals
- Omnivores- are animals that feed on both plants and animals.
- Scavengers- feed on dead remains of animals and also on plants that have recently
begun to decompose.
-Detritus is a term that refers to organic remains in the water and soil that are in the final
stage of decomposition.
-Bacteria and fungi including mushrooms are Decomposers that use their digestive
secretions to chemically breakdown dead organic matter, including animal wastes in the
external environment.
Abiotic Factors of an Ecosystem.
Sunlight- primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems.
-It is the energy that is used by green plants during the process
of photosynthesis by which plants gather energy from sunlight
-Solar energy powers nearly all ecosystems.
- In aquatic environments, the availability of sunlight has a
significant effect on the growth and distribution of algae.
Photoperiodism-the response of plants to day and night.
Photoperiodism-the response of plants to day
and night.
3 Categories:
1. long day plants –plants that begin flowering process before the
summer solstice,June 12.
Examples; raddish,lettuce, potatoes,spinach
2. Short day plants- begin flowering process after summer solstice,
Dec.21. Examples:strawberries, poinsettia, chrysanthemum and
primroses.
3. Day neutral plants-appear to be in different cycles of light and
darkness. Examples: sunflower, cucumber,dandelions
Crespuscular,Diurnal, Nocturnal Animals
• are terms which are used to describe the period of the day during
which animal is active.
Crespuscular-active during the twilight hours, at dawn and dusk.
Example: rabbits and cats.
Nocturnal- active only at night.They tend to have keen eyesight and
excellent hearing. Example:beavers,rats, raccoons,opossum, flying
squirrels and owls.
Diurnal- active during the day.
Example: humans, chipmunks, dogs, groundhogs and woodpeckers.
Water
• -the universal solvent and the basis of all life on our planet.
• -an odorless, tasteless substance that covers more than three fourths
of the earth’s surface.97 % are salt water and 3% is fresh water.
• -is the primary agent for chemical and mechanical breakdown of rock
called weathering to form loose rock fragments and soil.
• Group of plants according to water requirements:
• 1. hydrophytes –live in water 2. mesophytes-moderate amount of
water 3.epiphytes –get water from air 4. xerophytes- grow under dry
condition 5. halophytes-salty water such as mangrooves
Temperature
• the measure of hotness and coldness of the body, substance or the
environment.
• Celsius (˚C)and Fahrenheit(˚F) are two frequently used temperature
scales
• Thermometer is used to measure temperature.
• Lower temperature remains on surfaces like snow and ice because of
less sunlight is absorbed . Also air feels cooler as you climb up a
mountain. This is because the temperature decreases as you move
away from the surface.
The weather is strongly affected by the
temperature.
• Temperature changes are significant in weather forecasting.
• In Northern Hemisphere, rising temperatures are associated with
southerly winds, and falling temperatures with northerly winds.
• Nighttime temperatures maybe 10˚F lower in rural areas than in
urban areas because of high concentration of manmade source of
heat in the cities.
• Environmental temperature is an important abiotic factor because of
its effect on metabolism.
Temperature Regulation in Animals
• 1. Poikilotherm “ cold -blooded animals”
Example: Reptiles, Fishes, Amphibians
2. Homeotherms “ warm –blooded animals
Example: Mammals and birds
Control of temperature in Homeotherms
• Animals capable of temperature regulation within a given range are
deemed homeotherms. They have the ability to regulate temperature
via negative feedback control.
• Skin possesses Thermoreceptors which detect the temperature of the
external environment.
• Increased Sweating- is a corrective response aimed to reduce the
temperature of the organism.
• Vasodilation is a corrective response where the blood vessels close to
the skin surface become more dilated.
• Vasoconstriction is the opposite of this and occurs when temp.drop.
Effects of temperature in Plants
• Temperatures alone influence flowering plants.
• Thermoperiod refers to daily temperature change. Plants produce
maximum growth when exposed to a day temperature that is 10-15
degree Fahrenheit higher than night temperature.
• Low temperatures can result in poor growth. Photosynthesis is slowed
down at low temperatures.
Wind
• -refers to the horizontal movement of the air that tends to equalize
lateral difference in temperature and pressure.
• It blows from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure. The
greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air flows.
• Wind is important. The belts of winds blowing around the world have a
great effect on weather and climate. Aside from this, wind constantly
wears down rocks and scoops out canyons. When a powerful blow or
blast of air happens, it carries away sand and soil, a process known as
wind erosion. This eventually results to soil formation. All these results
to one important phenomenon-the moving air changes the face of the
earth.
Describing Wind
Wind is described with direction and speed.
-easterly winds blows from east to west, westerly winds blows
from west to east
Monsoons are large-scale seasonal wind.
Southwest monsoon (habagat) From June-October
Northeast Monsoon(amihan) from Nov.-Feb.
Inorganic Substances
• These are various chemical substances found in the ecosystem in the form of
acids, bases, salts, water and carbon dioxide which are also important and
have effect on the organisms’ functioning in the ecosystem.
• Acids-its characteristics are: corrosive(burns your skin), sour taste,contains
hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, has a ph less than7, turns blue litmus
to red, reacts with bases to form salt and water, reacts with metals to form
hydrogen gas, reacts with carbonates to carbon dioxide, water and salt.
• Examples: hydrochloric acid in gastric juices,sulfuric acid and nitric acid as
acid rain components, carbonic acid,uric acid in urine, ascorbic acid (vit.c),
citric acid in citrus fruits ,acetic acid in vinegar,tannic acid in tea and wine, and
tartaric acid in grapes.
Bases are alkaline substances known to
buffer acidic conditions.
• Its characteristics are: corrosive, giving a soapy feel, having a pH more
than 7, turning red litmus paper to blue color, many alkalis(soluble
bases) containing hydroxyl ions, reacts with acids to form salt and
water.
• Examples: sodium chloride or caustic soda, calcium hydroxide or
limewater, ammonium hydroxide or ammonia water, magnesium
hydroxide or milk of magnesia, household materials such as bleaches,
soaps, toothpaste, and cleaning agents.
Salts, Water and Carbon dioxide
• -salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction
of an acid and a base. Composed of cations(positively charged) and
anions (negatively ions) so that the product is electrically neutral
(without a net charge).
• Water-is the most essential component of life. It acts as a medium of
transport because of its properties as a solvent.
• Carbon dioxide –composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded
to a single carbon atom. It is also a by-product of combustion; emitted
from volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers; and freed from carbonate
rocks by dissolution.
Organic Substances-are materials that do contain large
amounts of carbon in combination with hydrogen and
oxygen
Four major organic substances:
1. carbohydrates-coming from the different plants of which the abiotic
components have completely relied for energy in the form of glucose.
2. Proteins-made up of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together
by peptide bonds. It is important for the body to build and repair tissue.
3. Lipids (Fats)-molecular organic compounds composed largely of carbon and
hydrogen that are essential for cell growth. Its purposes are: energy storage, cell
membrane development, serves as a component of hormones and vitamins in the
body.
4. Nucleic Acids-biological molecules essential for life.DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and RNA( ribonucleic acid)
Rock and Soil
- Material that serves as an interface between the atmosphere, and the
lithosphere and with the hydrosphere.
- It sustains the growth of all plants and animals nforms part of
biosphere.
-Types of soil according to texture: Clay, Silt and Sandy.
-Soil Horizon/ layer: O-Organic Matter, A- Surface soil/Topsoil, B-
Subsoil, C- (regolith) parent rock/bedrock
Periodic Disturbances
• Catastrophic disturbances that can devastate biological communities:
-fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions
Types of Natural Fire
1. Surface fire- usually move rapidly through an area and do not
consume all organic layers
2. Ground fire-usually occur during periods of protracted drought
when the entire soil organic layer may dry sufficiently.
3. Crown fire-occurs in forests during periods of drought and low
relative humidity.
Limiting factors and Tolerance
Limiting Factors- are environmental influences that constrain the
productivity of organisms, populations, or communities and thereby
prevent them from achieving their full biological potential, which could
be realized under optimal conditions.
Law of minimum-states that the growth and well-being of an organism
is ultimately limited by that essential resource, that is in its lowest
supply relative to what is required. The most deficient resource is called
limiting factors.
Law of tolerance- each physical factor in the environment, a minimum
and maximum limit exists called tolerance limit.
Summary of Niche vs Habitat
1. Niche is more on how the organisms behave in the places where they
belong, while habitat is focused on the places where each organism belongs.
2. Niche is more on how organisms react to their environment, while
habitat is more on how their environment affects them.
3. The short definition of niche is how an organism makes a living in the
place it belongs, while habitat is where the organism live.