Homeostasis

AL Bio
Homeostasis
• The maintenance of a constant internal environment
Examples of physiological factors that are
controlled by homeostasis in mammals
• Temperature
• Blood pH
• Concentration of blood glucose
• Water potential of blood
Importance of homeostasis in mammals
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
• The blood and tissue fluid are examples of the internal environment
• These should be maintained at a norm / optimum value / set point / within narrow limits
• Low temperature will result in slowed metabolism and enzymes will be less active
• High temperature denatures enzymes
• Low water potential causes water to leaving cells by osmosis and cells shrink
• A high water potential causes water to enters cells and cells burst
• A low blood glucose concentration causes reduced rate of respiration
• A high blood glucose concentration causes water to leave cells by osmosis and the cells
shrink
• pH below the optimum causes denaturation of enzymes
Principles of homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
• despite changes in the, internal or external, environment
• Stimulus is detected by receptor
• Stimuli are changes in the environment e.g. temperature / water potential / blood glucose concentration
• Impulses are generated from receptors
• Impulses are sent to the CNS . This information is called the input
• The CNS is the central control
• The central control sends impulses to effector. This instructs the effector to carry out corrective action
(output ).
• Hormones are also sent to target cells for corrective action
• Effectors are muscles and glands. They carry out corrective action
• Factor returns to set point
• Homeostatic control uses negative feedback
• in a system controlled by negative feedback the level is never maintained perfectly, but constantly fluctuates
about the set point
Negative feedback
• The internal body environment is maintained at a set point/norm
• If there is a change in parameter away from the norm / set-point (it
could be rise, fall or fluctuation)
• is detected by receptors
• Coordination through the control centre
• effector performs corrective action
• factor returns to, norm / set-point
Production of urea
• Urea is produced in the liver from deamination of excess amino acids
• The amine group (-NH2) is removed from amino acids
• Ammonia is formed and then converted to urea
The human kidney
• Humans have two kidneys
• The functions of the kidneys are :
i. Osmoregulation – regulating the water content of the blood. This
helps to maintain the blood pressure.
ii. Excretion – the kidneys excrete the toxic waste products of
metabolism (such as urea) and substances in excess of
requirements (such as salts).
The structure of the kidney
• The whole kidney is covered by a fibrous capsule
• Beneath the fibrous capsule lies the cortex.
• The central area is made up of the medulla.
• The pelvis is the area where the ureter joins the kidney
• The ureter carries urine from kidneys to bladder
• Branches of the renal artery enter the kidneys
• Branches of the renal vein leave the kidneys
• Renal artery carries blood to the kidneys
• Renal vein carries blood away from the kidney
The nephron
• Each kidney contains thousands of tiny tubes known as nephrons
• The nephron is the function unit of the kidney
• The nephrons are responsible for formation of urine
Parts of the nephron
• The nephron contains the Bowman’s capsule which is cup-shaped
• The Bowman’s capsule surrounds a tight network of capillaries called the glomerulus
• Each glomerulus is supplied with blood by a branch of the renal artery called an afferent
arteriole.
• The capillaries of the glomerulus re-join to form an efferent arteriole
• Blood from these capillaries flow into a branch of the renal vein
• The glomerus and Bowman’s capsule are in the cortex of the kidney
• From the capsule the tube forms a twisted region called the proximal convoluted tubule (pct)
• Then a loop in the medulla called the loop of Henle
• The tube then runs back upwards in the cortex where it forms a twisted region called the distal
convoluted tubule (dct)
• The distal convoluted tubule joins a collecting duct that leads down through the medulla to the
pelvis
 Blood supply
associated with
a nephron
Section through cortex of kidney showing a glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
Formation of urine in the kidneys
• The process of urine formation in the kidneys occurs in two stages:
1. Ultrafiltration
2. Selective reabsorption
Ultrafiltration
• Occurs in the Bowman’s capsule
• Small molecules (urea, amino acids, water and inorganic ions) are filtered out of
blood into Bowman’s capsule to form glomerular filtrate
• It is called ultrafiltration because filtration occurs due to high pressure of blood in the
glomerulus
• Filtration occurs the two layers which have a basement membrane in between them
• The layers are
i) Endothelium of the capillary
ii) Epithelium of the Bowman’s capsule-that has podocytes

Basement membrane of the wall of renal capsule lies betwee

Ultrafiltration
• Capillary endothelium has many large pores or fenestrations
• The diameter of lumen of afferent arteriole is wider than efferent arteriole
• This results in high hydrostatic, pressure of blood moving through them
• This causes fluid with smaller molecules dissolved in blood plasma to be forced out through
fenestrations of capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule forming the glomerular filtrate
• The fluid passes through the basement membrane which is made of a mesh of collagen and
glycoprotein fibres
• The basement membrane acts as a selective filter
• Large molecules with RMM greater than 68 000 and proteins cannot pass through the
membrane
• Red and white blood cells are also large and do not pass through so remain in blood
• Water , solutes like urea ,glucose ,amino acids ,ions, pass through the basement
membrane
Ultrafiltration
• The fluid is forced out into the Bowman’s capsule
• The epithelial cell of the Bowman’s capsule are called podocytes
• These have interdigitating extensions that form filtration slits
between them
• The slits between the podocytes enable passage of the filtrate into
the capsule
• The fluid that enters the renal capsule is called the glomerular filtrate
Ultrafiltration
Concentration of substances in the blood and
glomerular filtrate
Role of basement membrane in
ultrafiltration
• acts as the filter
• prevents molecules more than 68 000 – 70 000 MM from passing
through
• stops, large (plasma) proteins / red blood cells from movingout of
blood
Selective reabsorption
• Occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
• Substances useful to the body and required to maintain the water
and salt composition of body fluid at steady state are removed from
filtrate and reabsorbed into blood
• All glucose is reabsorbed into blood meaning no glucose should be
present in urine
• Amino acids, vitamins and inorganic ions are reabsorbed
 Selective reabsorption
• Na+ are transported out of pct cells by active transport
• Na+ enter blood
• Na+ concentration in pct cells decreases .
• A Na+ concentration gradient is created between proximal convoluted tubule lumen
and cytoplasm of pct cells
• Na+ enter cells from, filtrate facilitated diffusion using a protein carrier
• Na+ are co-transported with glucose or amino acids or ions
• The water potential of cells decreases due to entry of Na+ ions
• Water enters cells from lumen by osmosis a down the water potential gradient
• Glucose and amino acids, leave pct cells by, (facilitated) diffusion
• Glucose and amino acids move into tissue fluid / blood
• Chloride (Cl- ) ions are also reabsorbed
Relationship of the structure of the proximal convoluted
tubule to function in the formation of urine
• microvilli in the surface facing the lumen -to increase the surface area of the inner
surface for reabsorption
• many mitochondria - to provide ATP for active transport of Na+ out of the cell
• tight junctions - hold adjacent cells together so that fluid cannot pass between the
cells from lumen of pct into the blood
• tight junctions / closely packed cells, hold adjacent cells together / prevents
leakage / fluid cannot pass between cells / substances must pass through cells
• folded, basal membrane increases surface area for (many) transport proteins
• many, transport proteins for transport of Na+
• many aquaporins
• More ER for protein synthesis
Explain how glucose is reabsorbed into the
blood from a kidney nephron
• Happens in the proximal convoluted tubule
• All glucose is reabsorbed (moves into blood)
• Na+ move out of pct cells into tissue fluid by active transport
• The concentration of Na+ decreases inside cells
• Therefore Na+ enters tubule cells from lumen by facilitated diffusion
• Na+ are co-transported with glucose with it through transport proteins
• Glucose then diffuses out of cells into tissue fluid
• GLUT proteins (on baso lateral membranes)
• Microvilli (on lumen side / apical membrane) increase surface area for reabsorption
• The tight junctions separate proteins of front and basolateral membranes
Role of the hypothalamus, ADH and the
posterior pituitary in osmoregulation.
When water potential increases below set point
• Osmoreceptors detect changes in the water potential in blood as they shrink when there is
less, water in blood
• ADH is produced in the hypothalamus when there is a low, water potential
• Nerve impulses are sent along neurones to the posterior pituitary gland
• ADH is transported from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary gland where it is secreted by
neurosecretory cells
• ADH is transported in blood to the collecting duct
• ADH increases permeability of collecting duct
• ADH makes the cell surface membrane of the collecting duct cells more permeable to water
• More water is reabsorbed . A smaller volume of more concentrated urine is produced
• The control of water potential of blood is through negative feedback
Role of the hypothalamus, ADH and the
posterior pituitary in osmoregulation
Decrease in water potential below the set point
• Detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
• Osmoreceptors no longer stimulated
• Fewer impulses sent to the posterior pituitary gland
• Neurones stop secreting ADH/little ADH secreted
• Aquaporins moved out of the cell surface membrane of the collecting duct
back into the cytoplasm
• Collecting duct impermeable to water
• Little /no water reabsorbed back into tissue fluid and blood
• Large volumes of dilute urine produced
 How the action of ADH on the cells of the collecting duct
leads to the reabsorption of water in the glomerular filtrate
• ADH is a cell signalling molecule
• ADH binds to receptors on cell surface membrane of collecting duct cells.
• cAMP which is a second messenger is produced
• cAMP activates the protein kinase
• This initiates an enzyme cascade. Phosphorylase enzyme is produced
• The enzyme cascade causes the phosphorylation of aquaporin molecules
• vesicles with aquaporins move towards cell surface membrane of cells of collecting ducts
• The vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane
• The aquaporins are added to the cell surface membrane
• This increases the cell surface membrane, permeability to water
• Water moves out of the collecting duct by osmosis into the surrounding tissue fluid / blood
Role of aquaporins in osmoregulation
• Aquaporins are water channel proteins
• Aquaporins increase the cell surface membrane permeability of
collecting ducts to water
• They allow water to, be reabsorbed / move into tissue fluid or blood
Control of blood glucose concentration
• Homeostatic control of blood glucose is carried out by two hormones
secreted by the Islets of Langerhans i.e. glucagon and insulin
• β- cell secrete insulin
• α-cells secrete glucagon
Principles of cell signalling - Control of
blood glucose concentration by glucagon
• Glucagon binds to receptors in the cell surface membrane
• The receptors change in conformation
• The G-protein is activated
• This stimulates activation of adenylyl cyclase
• cyclic AMP (cAMP) is made
• cAMP is a second messenger
• cAMP activates the protein kinase
• Activation of protein kinase initiates an enzyme cascade
• The signal is amplified through an enzyme cascade as a result of activation of more and more enzymes by
phosphorylation
• Cellular response occurs in which phosphorylase the final enzyme in the pathway is activated
• This causes glycogenolysis (glycogen broken to glucose )
• Glucose diffuses out of cells into blood
• The blood glucose concentration increases
Negative feedback control mechanisms in
regulation of blood glucose - role of insulin
• A rise in blood glucose concentration is detected by β cells in, islets of Langerhans / pancreas
• Insulin is released into blood by β cells in, islets of Langerhans
• Insulin binds to receptors in cell surface membrane of liver / muscle cells
• More vesicles with GLUT 4 proteins move and fuse with cell surface membrane
• GLUT 4 facilitate movement of glucose into cells
• The cell surface membrane becomes more permeable to glucose
• There is an increase in use of glucose in respiration
• And an increase in glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen )
• This causes the blood glucose concentration to fall
• Insulin also inhibits secretion of glucagon hence inhibits glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown)
• Decreases gluconeogenesis
• Negative feedback
Role of insulin
• Increase glucose uptake by muscle/liver/adipose
• Increase permeability of cells to glucose
• More transport (GLUT 4) proteins added to membrane
• By vesicles fusing with cell surface membrane
• Stimulates glycogenesis
• glucokinase phosphorylates glucose in liver cells
• increased (rate of) diffusion of glucose into liver cells
• Increased lipid or triglyceride synthesis
• Decreases glycogenolysis
• Decreases gluconeogenesis
• Decreases blood glucose concentrations
Use of test strips in measuring
concentration of glucose in blood and urine
• Glucose oxidase is immobilised and stuck onto, pad
• Test strip is dipped into blood or urine
• Glucose reacts with glucose oxidase to produce hydrogen peroxide.
• Hydrogen peroxide reacts with chromogen on the pad and produces a
coloured substance
• The result of colour of the pad is matched against a colour chart
which shows colours that indicate different concentrations of glucose
• The darkness of colour is proportional to concentration of glucose
• It is important to observe colour change in a fixed time
Test strips in testing for blood glucose
concentration
Advantages
• specific / only detects glucose

Disadvantages
• Does not give current blood glucose concentration
• Not numerical
Use of biosensors in measuring
concentration of glucose in blood
• The pad contains glucose oxidase
• Blood is put on strip that is inserted into biosensor
• The enzyme glucose oxidase reacts with glucose in the blood to form
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide
• Hydrogen peroxide is oxidised at an electrode
• An electric current generated from flow of electrons
• The electric current is detected by the electrode
• This gives a numerical value of blood glucose concentration which is
displayed on screen
Biosensor
Advantages
• gives the exact reading of blood glucose concentration
• more precise reading / quantitative
• quicker
• gives immediate reading
• results can be stored electronically / can be connected to smart
phone
Disadvantage
• The procedure is invasive
Changes in environmental conditions
• Stomata respond to changes in the environment by opening and
closing
• The regulation of stomatal aperture balances the need for carbon
dioxide uptake by diffusion with the need to minimise water loss by
transpiration
Changes in the external environment that
lead to stomatal opening
Opening of stomata
• high light intensity

Importance of stomatal opening

• gains CO2 for photosynthesis
• allows oxygen out
• allows transpiration to occur which brings water and mineral ions for
photosynthesis and turgidity of leaves
Changes in the external environment that
lead to stomatal closure
Closing of stomata
• in the darkness / low light intensity
Importance
• carbon dioxide not required as no photosynthesis
Closing of stomata
• in low humidity
• high temperature
• high wind speed
• water stress
Importance
• to maintain cell turgidity
• to prevent wilting
• to prevent water loss (by transpiration
Changes in the external environment that
lead to stomatal opening
Opening of stomata
• Increased light intensity
• Low carbon dioxide concentrations in air spaces within the leaf
Importance
• Leaves take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
Daily rhythms of opening and closing of
stomata
• Stomata have daily rhythms of opening and closing
• Even when kept in constant light or darkness these rhythms persist
• Opening of stomata during the day maintains the inward diffusion of carbon dioxide and outward
diffusion of oxygen
• It also allows the outward of diffusion of water vapour in transpiration
• The closure of stomata at night when photosynthesis cannot occur reduces rates of transpiration
and conserves water
 Rhythm of stomatal opening
a) over several days
b) b) in constant light
c) long periods of constant darkness
Structure of guard cells
• Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells
• Guard cells control the opening and closure of stomatal aperture
Guard cells have the following features:
• Thick cell walls facing air outside the leaf and the stoma
• Thin cell walls facing adjacent epidermal cells
• Cellulose microfibrils arranged in bands around the cell
• Cell walls have no plasmodesmata
• Cell surface membrane is often folded and contains many channel and carrier proteins
• Cytoplasm has a high density of chloroplasts and mitochondria
• Chloroplasts have thylakoids but with few grana (unlike those in mesophyll cell chloroplasts)
• Mitochondria have many cristae
• Several small vacuoles rather than one large vacuole
Mechanism by which guard cells open
stomata
• There are proton pumps in cell surface membranes of guard cells
• These pump H+ out of cells using ATP
• This results in a lower H+ concentration inside the cell (more negative)
• The inside of the cell becomes more negative than the outside
• The K+ channels open
• The K+ move into the cell by facilitated diffusion
• Cl - ions enter the cell
• The water potential of cell decreases
• Water moves into the cell by osmosis through aquaporins
• The volume of guard cells increases
• Guard cells become turgid / increase in turgor pressure
• The unequal thickness of cell wall (of guard cell) causes the stoma to open.
Role of Abscisic acid in closure of stomata
during water stress
• ABA is a stress
• ABA production increases during drought
• Abscisic acid (ABA) bind to receptors on cell surface membrane of guard cells
• This stops hydrogen ions/protons from leaving the cell
• Calcium ions enter the cytoplasm of guard cells
• The calcium ions are a second messenger
• They cause the channel proteins to open
• K+ ions leaves the cell
• Cl- also leaves the cell
• The water potential increases inside the cell causing water to leave the cell by osmosis
• The cell volume decreases and the cell becomes flaccid closing the stoma