COURSE TITLE:

RESEARCH METHODS

COURSE CODE:
LAT 399S

COURSE LECTURER:
DR. ROBERT AGBEMAFLE
0244151461/0205373859
ragbemafle@ucc.edu.gh
• COURSE OUTLINE
• OBJECTIVES
- The main objective of this course is to
introduce students to research methodology
with emphasis on data collection, analysis
and interpretation.
- By the end of this course students will be
able to:
- Write a project/research proposal
- Collect data, analyse, and interpret
- Write a research report/dissertation
• TEACHING AREAS
- Definition/Meaning of research
• Components of project/research report

• Introduction
- Background information
- Statement of the problem
- Aims and objectives
- Significance/Justification of study
- Research questions/Hypothesis (where
necessary)
- Limitations (if any)
• Literature Survey/review
- Importance of literature review

• Materials and methods/Methodology

- Study area
- Study/research design
- Sampling and sample collection
- Data collection-Instruments for
collecting data
- Organization and Statistical Analysis
of data* QUIZ 1
• Results/findings
- Presentation of results

• Discussions of results/findings

• Conclusions and recommendations

• References

• Appendices

• Abstract
• Project/research proposal
• What is a project proposal
• What are the components of a project
proposal QUIZ 2

• Proposal presentations
• Assessment/Evaluation
- Continuous assessment (Quizzes, Assignments,
Seminar presentation) - 40 marks
- End of semester examination
- 60 marks

• REFERENCES
- Anthony-Kruger, C. and Sokpe, B.Y (2006). A Guide to
Successful Long Essay and Thesis. YACI Press Cape
Coast

- Glatthorn. A.A (1998). Writing a winning dissertation:

Step-by step guide. Thousand Oaks, C.A. Crown Press

- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology – Methods

and Techniques. Second revised edition. New Age
• A guide to the APA 6th ed. Referencing
style
UCOL Student Experience Team
• American Psychological Association
(APA) Referencing Style Guide,
Western Sydney University
 Definition of research
• Research is an inquiry (scientific) aimed
at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc.

• It is the systematic collection, analysis

and interpretation of data to generate
new knowledge and answer a certain
question or solve a problem.
• What is Scientific Inquiry?
- Scientific inquiry is a term that
encompasses a variety of techniques that
scientists use to explore the natural world
and propose explanations based on the
evidence they find.

- Scientific inquiry is founded on

experiments and observations
- Scientific Inquiry can enrich our
understanding of science
• Characteristics of Scientific
Inquiry
- Based on facts
- Objective consideration
- Analytical
- Quantitative in nature
- Deductive Logic-Hypothesis
- Inductive Logic-Generalization
• Activities in Scientific Inquiry
- Making observations
- Posing questions
- Finding out what is already known
- Planning investigations
- Reviewing past knowledge in light of
experimental evidence
- Using tools to gather, analyze, and
interpret data
- Proposing explanations
- Communicating the results.
• General Model of Scientific Inquiry
- State general problem
- State aim study
- State specific objectives
- Conduct literature search
- Design methodology
- Gather data
- Analyze data
- Report results
- Interpret results
• General classification of research
1. Quantitative research
- Involves collection of numerical data
egs. --Field & laboratory experiments
-- Surveys
2. Qualitative research
- Involves collection of textual data
eg. --Case studies

Scientific inquiry is mainly by

quantitative approach which involves
- Experiments
- Observations
- In experiments, variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated to determine the
relationship between/among the variables

- The things that are changing in an experiment

are called variables.

- A variable is any factor, trait, or condition

that can exist in differing amounts or types.
An experiment usually has three kinds of
variables: independent, dependent, and
controlled.

- Variables that are manipulated are called the

- Variables that are measured are called the
Dependent Variables

- Variables that are not manipulated (kept

constant) are called Controls.

- A control is defined as a group in an experiment

or study that does not receive treatment by the
researcher and is then used as a benchmark to
measure how the other tested subjects do.

- A control is sometimes used as a standard of

comparison for checking the results of an
experiment
• Example 1: Applying different amount of
water or fertilizer to a plant to determine
their effects on growth of the plant or
quality of the fruits from the plant

• Example 2: Storing a type of food product

under different conditions to determine
their effects on the shelf life of the food
product

• Question: What are the independent and

the dependent variables in the above
examples?
• Answers
1. Independent variable – water or fertilizer
Dependent variable – Growth and quality
parameters

2. Independent variable – storage conditions

Dependent variable – shelf life of the food

• In experiments, the various manipulations

given to the independent variables are
referred to as treatments
• Experimental units – are subjects to
which treatments are given eg. Plants,
human beings (rats), soils, water etc.

• In surveys, data are collected using

questionnaires or structured interviews
with the intent of generalizing from a
sample to a population
 COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

Chapter One

1.0 Introduction

consists of:

1.1 Background to the study – general statements that

stimulate interest as well as conveying the issue being
studied.

This statement is then followed by specific ones that

relate to the study. Can be obtained during literature
reviews
1.2 Statement of the problem
o Determine a well define general problem
– Sources: research articles, scientific
discussion, environments, etc.

o Exercise your thought to express the

problems
o Write them as quickly as possible
o Be ready, that some (may be all) of your
general problems are not researchable
– Conduct literature search
– Consult experts
1.3 Aim and objectives
State a general aim followed by specific
objectives.
- The general aim reflects the main
purpose of the study and the specific
objectives give the activities that when
carried will help achieve the aim and
hence solve the problem

- Should be in line with the research topic

• 1.4 Research questions
– are questions that are formulated in
such a way that answers found to them
would serve as solutions to the research
problem (mainly used in qualitative and
survey projects).
- should be linked to the objectives
- interview and questionnaire items are
usually derived from the research
questions.
1.5 Hypothesis
- Is a speculation or bold guess that is
assumed to be the solution to the problem

o Basically, there are to types of hypotheses:

– Null hypothesis, denoted Ho
– Alternative hypothesis, denoted Ha or H1
- Both are based on statistical analysis

o Hypothesis are tested and accepted or

rejected based on the findings from the
experiment
• Null hypothesis (Ho) is always stated in the
negative sense. (‘no relationship or
difference’ between the variables).
Eg. The amount of water applied to tomato
plant would have no significant effect on
the height of the plant.

• Alternate hypothesis (Ha) is in the positive

sense (there is a relationship/difference
between the variables).
Eg. The amount of water applied would have
a significant effect on the height of the
tomato plant
• Testing of hypothesis
- Is a process of evaluating the tentative
assumption(s) put forward

- Evidence is adduce to reject or accept the

hypothesis

- Test statistics computed from the data is used to

test the hypothesis

- The least significance difference (Lsd) ie. alpha (α)

value or p-value is used to either reject or accept
the hypothesis

- Usually, a significant value of 5% (95% confident

that the conclusion is upheld) ie p-value of 0.05
• Common statistics for determining the p-value
include t-test, z-test, chi-square test and analysis of
variance (ANOVA) etc.

• Computer software programs available for these

tests include SPSS, Stata, Minitab, Graphpad,
Genstar etc.

• p-value greater than 0.05 (p>0.05) indicates that the

differences in the measurements are not significant,
therefore the Ho is accepted and Ha is rejected

• On the other hand if p-value is less than 0.05

(p<0.05) then the differences in the measurements
are significant hence the Ho is rejected and Ha
accepted.
1.6 Significance of the study
- Deals with the need or justification for
finding a solution to the research problem
and hence the need for the study

- It states clearly the importance of the

study

- It states who the beneficiary or

stakeholders would be, how they would
benefit from the solution to the problem
1.7 Limitations
- are potential shortcomings of the study
that could influence the results or its
generalization but which the researcher
has little no control

- Outlining the limitations of the study

would :
 enable the reader to better appreciate
the value of the results
 future researchers to have an idea of
militating factors to look out for and
possibly take care of them

Examples
- Due to limitations of material and time
resources, the sample may be very small in
relation to the entire population

- Due to inability to reach the sampling site

(eg due to transport problems, bad
weather, ill-health etc) the resulting
sample may be unrepresentative
- due to power or equipment failures
analysis could not be carried out on
specific days or times

- in interviews, due to lack of co-

operation from respondents the total
number of persons interviewed may be
smaller than anticipated

- questionnaires mailed to people may not

be returned despite one or two
reminders
1.8 Delimitation
- is the scope of the study
Example
- the study may be confined to a certain
section of the population eg only a
particular variety or type of a food is
used in the study and the result cannot
be generalized for all foods

- the study may be confined to a smaller

geographical area instead of a wider area
hence its application to the larger area
may not be applicable
 Chapter Two
2.0 Literature review
Purpose
- Shares with the reader the result of other studies
that are closely related to the study being reported

- Relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the

literature about a topic, fillings in gaps and extending
prior studies

- Provides a framework for establishing the importance

of the study, as well as a benchmark for comparing
the results of the study with other findings

- Provides a justification for methods used in the

collection of data
• Citations of references in literature review

- References in text and at end of the study are cited

using the American Psychological Association (APA)
format

In text: Single or two authors

i. Surname of author(s)
ii. Year of publication
Eg. Mullane (2006) conducted research into the effect
of…..
Or
The research conclusively proved a correlation between
the results (Mullane, 2006).
Mullane & Geoffery (2006) conducted research into the
effect of…..
Or
The research conclusively proved a correlation between
the results (Mullane & Geoffery, 2006).

• Three, four or five authors

- Cite all authors for the first time and from then on
use only the last name of the first author followed the
‘et al.’ a Latin word for and others
Eg: (Watson, Mckenna, Cowman & Keady, 2008)
(Watson et al., 2008)

• Six or more authors

- Use the last name of the first author followed by et
al.
• Citing from a secondary source
- If the information is cited by another author,
acknowledge the source you have read showing it
as a secondary source. In text use the word ‘as
cited in’ to indicate this is a secondary source
Eg: Fawcet (as cited in Polit & Beck, 2018)
thus Fawcet is the original author and Polit & Beck
are authors of the secondary source

Eg 2: Jones (as cited in Smith, 2009) agreed that

the experiment failed to confirm this hypothesis.
or
The experiment failed to confirm this hypothesis
(Jones, as cited in Smith, 2009).
• Citations from institutions or NGOs
Eg Ministry of Health, World Health
Organization, Food Agriculture
Organization etc
Write the institution in full for first time
and use the abbreviation in subsequent
citations
Eg. (Ministry of Health [MOH], 2014),
then subsequently, (MOH, 2014)
• Citing from electronic database
- in-text citation is same as for single or
multiple authors
- The difference is how to write the
citation in the reference section of the
research report
Eg: van Heugten (2013) found that…
or
Personal resilience has been found to…
(van Heugten, 2013)
• During literature, review literature on
the:
- independent variable
- dependent variable
- both independent and dependent
variables highlighting the most
important related studies already
conducted
• Sources
- Textbooks
- Published articles in journals
- Newspapers
- Thesis and dissertations
- Internet – e-books, etc
 Chapter Three
3.0 Materials and methods (Methodology)
3.1 Study area
- state where samples are taken and
where analysis is undertaken
- explain the location stating longitudes
and latitudes of the area
- if possible present a map of the area
indicating the sampling sites
3.2 Research (Experimental) design
- It states clearly the type of sampling
technique used in the collection of
samples
- It specifies the approach used for
gathering data eg. experiments.,
observation, questionnaire etc
- It states the variables involved
- -state which variable was manipulated
and how it was manipulated to get the
effect
- Thus it states clearly the treatments and
the replications
3.2.1 Sample collection (Sampling)
- a sample is a smaller unit of a population (whole
or bulk) that is considered as representative
enough for use as the experimental unit
- it should have all the characteristics of the
population (bulk)

- population refers to the complete set of

individuals (subjects), objects or events having
common observable characteristics in which the
research is interested

- Sampling or sample collection is done to select a

unit that will represent the population.
• Sampling Techniques
1. Random (probability) sampling
- ensures that every possible element of the
population has an equal chance of being
selected.

Types
- simple random sampling
--Lottery method – involves writing elements
on pieces of paper, placing in a box and
picking one after the other without
replacement
 - Stratified random sampling
-- used to select samples from heterogeneous
population with definite strata or classes.

-- equal numbers of elements are selected

randomly from each stratum to form the
sample

- Cluster random sampling

-- used for homogenous population

--involves dividing population into equal segments

and selecting elements randomly from each
2. Non-random (non-probability)
sampling
- Involves establishment of a criterion by
the researcher

- Elements in the population that meet

the criterion are selected

- Resulting sample can be biased

Types
- Convenience sampling
--based on convenience of the researcher
with respect to accessibility of the
elements, availability of information

- Quota sampling
-- this ensures that representative
samples of all the known elements of
the population occur in the sample
--involves stratification of the population on
some basis (eg. income levels, sex,
occupation) after which a number of
elements to be selected from each stratum
is decided by the researcher.
-- this number is called the quota

- Purposive sampling
-- sample is chosen to suit the purpose of the
study
-- certain elements of the population are
deliberately selected on the judgment of
the researcher based on certain attributes
 - Snowball sampling
-- is a kind of strategic informant sampling
--the researcher first asks a selected
number of the population who else he
ought to ask to obtain useful information
and then repeats the process with each
of those he is told about
--it is useful when the information about
the population is scanty

NB: Random sampling is the main type of

sampling used in scientific researches
Sample size
- refers to the number/quantity/amount
of samples used to get sufficient data
for analysis

- the larger the sample size the more

reliable and valid the results

Eg. In measuring the height of plants it is

advisable to sample more of the plants,
measure their heights and find the
average.
Instruments for data collection
1. Experimentation
- used in scientific research to collect data
- involves making measurements and
recordings results
- replications are very important to
minimize errors

2. Observation
- involves using one’s senses to see, smell,
touch, or taste and listening to what is
going on in given social setting
For successful observations, note the ff;
- compile the list of attributes to be
observed
eg. attributes for food vendors

- construct a recording model for the

observation eg. tally sheet, rating scale (1,
2, 3, 4 etc) stating what each represents
as in questionnaires

Used in sensory evaluation of food products

3. Asking questions
- done by the use of questionnaires and
interviews

• Questionnaire
- is a written instrument that contains a series
of statements called items that attempts to
collect information on a particular topic

- useful for collecting large data from literate

respondents in survey research

- the items must relate to the objectives,

research questions or the hypothesis
• Types of questionnaire items
Two major types
1. Open ended items
- asks the respondent to construct or write
response from a word to several paragraphs

- easy to construct but difficult to analyze

2. Close ended items

- requires the respondent to make a choice by
checking, ticking or circling the one they wish

- difficult to construct but easy to analyze

• Types of close ended questionnaires
1. Dichotomous response types
- offers the respondent two alternatives from
which to choose
Yes – No, True – False, Employed - Unemployed
Resident – Non resident etc.
Eg. Are you a food vendor?
Yes No

2. Multiple choice items

- questionnaire items that offer three or more
options as answers
Eg. What food do you sell?
Wakye
Gari and beans
Jollof rice
Fried rice

3. Rating scale items

- used to evaluate product atritudes
eg perception about a product
(a) Numerical rating scale
- measures characteristic by assigning
numbers to specific rating category
eg. Rate your current teacher against
others you have had
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The length of the scale is decided by the
researcher, normally five, seven or nine
point called Hedonic scale
eg 5-point hedonic scale
7-point hedonic scale
9 –point hedonic scale
- the points are then interpreted as
Eg
1 represents Excellent
2 Very good
3 Moderately good
4 Good
5 Moderately bad
6 Bad
7 Very bad
(b) Graphical rating scale
- Similar to numerical rating scale except
that the scale contains words rather
than numbers
Eg. The teacher stimulates interest
Or The taste of the Wakye is good
Strongly agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Advantages of questionnaire use:
- requires little time of respondents
- allows for broad geographic sampling
- cost of distribution and return is low

Disadvantages
- the opportunity to build rapport with
respondent is limited
- probing for details or explanations of
responses is not possible
- response rate may be low especially in
mailed questionnaires
• Interviews
- is a face-to-face meeting between the
interviewer and the respondent

- usually for illiterate respondents

- can be structured, semi structured or

unstructured

- structured interview is one in which the

interviewer asks the respondent an established
set of questions. Each interview involves
exactly the same questions asked in the same
way. Similar to oral questionnaire
- semi-structured interview is that in
which the interviewer has a general
framework for questioning but no exact
set of questions

- unstructured interview is a flexible

approach to interviewing. It lacks
specificity

- recording of responses from interview is

similar to those of questionnaires
depending on the structure
3.3 Data analysis
- state how data are organized (eg. Tables, bar
charts, line graphs etc. (See samples)

- analyzed, stating the statistical package used eg

SPSS, Minitab, Stata, Graphpad etc.

- for tables add standard error or standard deviation

- for line and bar graphs show standard error lines

- state the type of statistical analysis carried out eg.

t-test, z-test, chi-square test, analysis of variance,
regression and correlation etc.
- for multiple comparison, state the
statistical test used to compare mean
differences stating the alpha value eg.
Duncan’s multiple test, Tukey’s HSD
multiple comparison test etc
• Chapter four
4.0 Results and discussion
- the results of the study and the
discussions may be presented together or
separately
- present results based on objectives or
research questions
- results are presented in tables, bar or line
graphs where appropriate. DO NOT
PRESENT BOTH
- after presenting, results state typical or
factual observations without
interpretations, inference or evaluation
 - in the discussions, relate results to
theory, literature review or any other
issue relevant to the study citing
references
- Point out how consistent or inconsistent
the results are with those of related
studies reported earlier
- where there are inconsistencies, the
possible causes or reasons must be
pointed out
• Chapter Five
5.0 Conclusions and recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
-Take each objective of the study and give the
summary of the findings to each and give short
conclusions

5.2 Recommendations
- are suggestions regarding actions that should be
taken as a result of conclusions
- include suggestions for further research
regarding aspects not covered in the current
study or extension of study to other
geographical areas where there likelihood of
getting varied results
• References from Journals
- Use American Psychological Association Version 6
style
- Only references cited in text must appear in full
- As much as possible use most current articles or
editions of books
- Should be arranged in alphabetical order
- Format
- - surname of authors
- - their initials
- - year of publication in bracket
- - title of article
- - name of journal (in italics)
- - volume/number
- - pages
Examples:
- Single author
Besford, R. T. (1978). Effect of replacing nutrient
potassium by sodium on uptake and distribution
of sodium in tomato plants. Plant and Soil, 50(1),
399-409.

Oktem, A. (2008). Effect of water shortage on

yield, and protein and mineral compositions of
drip-irrigated sweet corn in sustainable
agricultural systems. Agricultural water
management, 95(9), 1003-1010.
- Two authors
Dunham, R. J., & Nye, P. H. (1976). The influence of soil
water content on the uptake of ions by roots. III.
Phosphate, potassium, calcium and magnesium uptake and
concentration gradients in soil. Journal of applied
Ecology, 967-984.

- Three, four five, six or seven authors

Griffiths, K. M., Behboudian, M. H., & Dingle, M. (1992).
Irrigation management and fruit quality in Asian
pear. HortScience, 27(6), 627-627.

Sánchez-Rodríguez, E., Moreno, D. A., Ferreres, F., del Mar

Rubio-Wilhelmi, M., & Ruiz, J. M. (2011). Differential
responses of five cherry tomato varieties to water
stress: changes on phenolic metabolites and related
enzymes. Phytochemistry, 72(8), 723-729.
• Eight or more authors
- For eight or more authors, include the
first six authors’ names and the use
…..before concluding with the last
author’s name

- Vissing, K., Brink, M., Lønbro, S., Sørensen,

H., Overgaard, K., Danborg, K., ... & Aagaard,
P. (2008). Muscle adaptations to plyometric
vs. resistance training in untrained young
men. The Journal of Strength &
Conditioning Research, 22(6), 1799-1810.
• Reference from textbooks
- Name (s) of authors
- Year of publication
- Title of book (in italics)
- Edition
- Publishers
- Pages
Eg. Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1991). Plant
Physiology (2nd ed., pp. 265-291).
California: Benjamin/Cummings
Publishing Company.
From internet sources
http://www.who.int/nutrition/tropics/malnutritio
n/en/html
assessed 18 June 2012
- Journal with DOI (Digital Object Identifier):
Van-Heugten, K. (2013). Resilience as an underexplored
outcome of workplace bullying. Qualitative Health
Research, 23(3), 291-301. doi:
10.1177/1049732312468251

- Journal with no DOI and restricted access

Wheeler, D.P., & Bragin, M. (2007). Bringing it all back
home: Social work and the challenge of returning
veterans. Health and Social Work, 32, 297-300.
• Appendices
- all other relevant information on the
research are placed here
- eg formulae, important tables,
statistical analysis tables etc
• Abstract
- is a brief summary of the research (not more
than a page – about 250 words
- made up of background of study (about one or
two sentences
- the aim/objective of the study
- methodology (materials and methods) employed
- results
- conclusions and recommendations
- below the abstract are the key words – about
five words

See sample
EFFECT OF DEFICIT IRRIGATION ON ANTIOXIDANT COMPOSITION OF TOMATO
Abstract
Tomato and its products have been reported to be major sources of
antioxidants. However, tomato production in Ghana is limited during the dry
seasons due to scarcity of water. Deficit irrigation is one way of mitigating the
water scarcity during the dry season. The study was conducted to assess the
effects of deficit irrigation on the antioxidant composition of tomatoes. Tomato
fruits cultivated under different irrigation treatments (100% ETc, 90% ETc, 80%
ETC and 70% ETc) were harvested and analyzed for lycopene, beta carotene,
ascorbic acid, tocopherols (vitamin E), flavonoids and total phenolics.
Spectrophotometric methods were employed in the determination of the
various antioxidant components. The results of the study showed that apart
from beta carotene and ascorbic acid which decreased with deficit irrigation, all
the other antioxidant compounds lycopene, vitamin E, flavonoids and total
phenolics increased. There were no significant differences (p>0.05) in the
lycopene, beta carotene, ascorbic acid, vitamin E and flavonoid contents of the
tomato for the various water treatments. However, the total phenolics content
of the tomato from 70% ETc treatment was significantly different (p<0.05) from
those of 80% ETc, 90% ETc and 100% ETc. Therefore 10 – 20% reduction in the
amount of water used for irrigation is recommended in the cultivation of
tomatoes in order to retain most of its antioxidants components as well as save
water for other purposes.
• Research proposal
- Is a document written by a researcher
that provides a detailed description
(plan) of the proposed study

- It is an outline of the entire research

process that gives a reader a summary
of what is to be done during the
research
• Components of a research proposal
Title – should be brief and concise

Introduction
- is the background information in the
form of a literature review which helps
set the context for the research.
It captures the following:
- the problem
- aim and objectives
- hypothesis (if possible)
- significance
- delimitation
- proposed limitations

Methodology
- Should present materials and methods to be
used to collect data
should capture the following:
- study area
- sample collection (how sample will be collected)
- sample treatment and data collection
 - presentation of data eg graphs, table etc.
- statistical analysis and interpretation of
data (state the statistical analysis to be
carried eg. T-test, chi-square test,
ANOVA and the statistical tools to be
used eg SPSS, Minitab, Stata, Genstar)
- time-table – schedule of activities
stating when each activity will carried
out
Expected outcome/results
- take each parameter measured and state
the result expected based on the
objectives or hypothesis
Dissemination
- state how the findings from the
research will be disseminated eg
through:
- Internal seminars
- Regular reporting to stakeholders (eg.
health service, industrial partners,
Government
- Publications (eg. journal articles)
- Conference presentations
- Exhibitions
Budget
- if research is to funded, include a
budget (all items/activities and their
cost should be tabulated stating the
total cost)

References
- list all references cited in the proposal

Student presentation of research

proposal