WORKING

MEMORY& LONG-
TERM MEMORY
CONTENTS
Introduction​to Memory
Working Memory
Models of Working Memory
Long-term Memory
Factors affecting Memory
Memory Disorders
MEMORY
 4

INTRODUCTION
What is Memory?

Memory refers to the ability of an individual to encode, store, and

retrieve information over time. It is a critical cognitive function that
allows individuals to learn, adapt, and perform a wide range of tasks.
Memory can be divided into several types based on the duration and
nature of the information being stored.
 5

IMPORTANCE
LEARNING & PERSONAL DECISION OCCUPATIONAL
EDUCATION RELATIONSHIP MAKING PERFORMANCE

MEMORY
Memory is Memory is
Memory is Memory is
important for important for
essential for important for
maintaining occupational
learning and decision-making.
personal performance. It
education. It It allows us to
relationships. It allows us to

OF
allows us to retain consider past
allows us to remember tasks
information and experiences and
remember past and instructions,
recall it later, make informed
interactions with perform them
which is crucial decisions based on
people, build effectively, and
for academic that information.
rapport, and improve our
success
strengthen our productivity.
connections.
 TYPES OF MEMORY 6

Sensory Memory Sensory memory is the shortest-term memory that lasts only a fraction of a second. It
refers to the ability to retain sensory information, such as what we see or hear, for a brief
period of time

Short-term Memory Short-term memory is the ability to retain information for a brief period, typically up to
30 seconds. It allows us to perform mental tasks, such as mental arithmetic, remember
phone numbers, or recall directions.

Working Memory Working memory is the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind for a short
period of time. It is an essential component of problem-solving and decision-making

Long-term Memory Long-term memory refers to the ability to retain information over a long period of time,
from minutes to decades

TYPES OF LONG-TERM
MEMORY
a. Explicit Memory
• Explicit memory refers to the
conscious, intentional recall of past
events or facts.
• It can be further divided into
episodic memory, which is the
ability to recall specific events or
experiences, and semantic memory,
which is the ability to recall general
knowledge and facts.
7
b. Implicit Memory
• Implicit memory refers to the
unconscious, unintentional recall of
past experiences.
• It includes procedural memory,
which is the ability to recall how to
perform a task, and priming, which
is the ability to recall information
more quickly and easily after being
exposed to a related stimulus.
 8

IN CONCLUSION
Memory is an essential cognitive function that allows us to
learn, adapt, and function effectively in our environment. It
can be divided into several types based on the duration and
nature of the information being stored, each with its own
unique characteristics and importance.
WORKING MEMORY
 10

WHAT IS WORKING
MEMORY?
• It is the ability to hold information in
memory while performing complex tasks.
It holds information for a few seconds .
• Working memory is a cognitive system
with a limited capacity that can hold
information temporarily. It is important
for reasoning and the guidance of
decision-making and behavior.
• Working memory is the small amount of
information that can be held in mind.
CAPACITY OF WORKING MEMORY
Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity
of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children
and old adults). In the visual domain, some investigations
report no fixed capacity limit with respect to the total
number of items that can be held in working memory
For Example:
• Trying to remember a shopping list when you bump into
an old friend.
• Trying to remember a phone number while a toddler is
shouting for attention.
• Holding a person's address in mind while listening to
instructions about how to get there.
COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY 12

PHONOLOGICAL LOOP CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

• The phonological loop • The central executive is

is a component of VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD the core component of
Baddeley's model of Baddeley's model of
working memory, • The visuospatial working memory,
which is responsible for sketchpad is especially which is responsible for
the temporary storage important for tasks that supervising and
and processing of require the coordinating the other
auditory and verbal manipulation and two components
information integration of visual and • Integrating information
spatial information, from long-term
• E.g., remembering a
phone number or a list • Such as mental rotation memory.
of items in a specific tasks, map reading, or • The central executive is
order. assembling a puzzle. not a storage system
itself but rather a
control system

PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
SUBDIVISIONS
PHONOLOGICAL STORE
• Also known as "inner ear"
• This is where incoming
auditory information is briefly
stored in a raw auditory form.
13
ARTICULATORY CONTROL
PROCESS
• Also known as "inner voice“
• This is responsible for the
rehearsal and maintenance of
verbal information in a
phonological (i.e., speech-like)
form.
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VISUOSPATIAL
SKETCHPAD
SUBDIVISIONS

VISUAL CACHE INNER SCRIBE

• This is where incoming visual
information is briefly stored
• Such as colors, shapes, and
patterns.
• This is responsible for the
rehearsal and manipulation of
spatial information
• Such as mental rotation or
navigation
 CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
15

SUBDIVISIONS

ATTENTION CONTROL WORKING MEMORY DECISION-MAKING INHIBITION

UPDATING
• Updating and • Decision-making • Inhibiting
• Allocating
manipulating processes irrelevant or
attention to
information • Selecting the distracting
different tasks or
• Integrating appropriate information
stimuli
information from response/ strategy • To increase
• Switching attention
the phonological based on the task attention/focus
from one task to
another loop and demands and
visuospatial available
sketchpad. information.
WORKING MEMORY:
MODELS
 17

MIYAKE'S MODEL OF EXECUTIVE

FUNCTIONING

UPDATING SHIFTING INHIBITION

• This component refers • The ability to shift • To inhibit automatic or
to the ability to monitor attention between tasks
and update information prepotent responses.
or mental sets. • It involves suppressing
in working memory.
• It involves changing irrelevant or distracting
• It involves replacing old focus from one task to information
information with new another
information • Important for tasks that
• It is important for tasks require self-control and
• It is important for tasks that require flexible resisting temptation.
that require frequent thinking and adaptation
changes in information. to changing
circumstances.
 • The model treats working memory as executive 18
functions are important for a wide range of cognitive
tasks, including problem-solving, decision-making, and
planning.
• It also suggests that deficits in executive functions may
contribute to a variety of cognitive and behavioral
FUNCTIONING problems, such as ADHD, addiction, and impulse control
disorders.
OF • The components of Miyake’s are interrelated but can
MIYAKE’S also be measured independently. For example, a person
may have strong updating abilities but weak inhibition
MODEL abilities.

E.g., Trying to complete a complex project at work.

First, you might need to update your working memory
with relevant information, such as project goals,
deadlines, and stakeholder feedback. Then, you might
need to shift between different mental sets, such as
brainstorming different approaches or considering
potential challenges. Finally, you might need to inhibit
certain impulses, such as avoiding the temptation to
procrastinate or to take shortcuts in the project.
 19

COWANS' EMBEDDED PROCESSES

MODEL

ATTENTIONAL ATTENTIONAL ATTENTIONAL

ENGAGEMENT DISENGAGEMENT REFRESHING

• This involves directing • This involves • This involves actively

attention towards a disengaging attention maintaining information
stimulus or a piece of from one stimulus or in working memory by
information. information to shift to refreshing it
another. periodically.
 20
• Cowans' embedded processes model is a theory of
working memory that suggests that working memory is
not a separate system from long-term memory, but
rather that it is embedded within it.
• The embedded processes model suggests that working
WORKING memory is not just a passive storage system, but is rather a
set of dynamic processes that interact with other
cognitive systems as well.
OF • The model also emphasizes the role of interference in
COWAN’S working memory.

MODEL E.g., Trying to remember a phone number someone

just gave you. First, you might use your attention to
focus on the number and repeat it to yourself a few
times to help it stay in your working memory.
But, if you were to receive another phone call or
encounter a distraction while trying to remember the
number, it could interfere with your ability to
maintain the information in your working memory,
making it harder to transfer the number into your
long-term memory for later retrieval.
LONG-TERM MEMORY
 22

DEFINING
Long-term memory refers to the
memory process in the brain that
takes information from the short-
term memory store and creates long
lasting memories.
• These memories can be from an
hour ago or several decades ago.
• Long-term memory can hold an
unlimited amount of information
for an indefinite period of time
TYPES OF LTM
23

EXPLICIT

• It is declarative memory because

we consciously try to recall a
specific event or piece of
information.
• Such as formulas and dates, are all
stored in explicit memory.

IMPLICIT

• These memories are unconscious

and automatic.
• This includes memories of how to
perform tasks that you do everyday.
• It can affect thoughts and behavior.
 SUBTYPES: IMPLICIT-EXPLICIT
24

EPISODIC SEMANTIC PROCEDURAL

• It is a part of the • It is responsible for • Procedural memory is a
Explicit Memory

Implicit Memory
explicit long-term storing information part of the implicit
memory responsible for about the world. This memory responsible for
storing information includes knowledge knowing how to do
about events (i.e. about the meaning of things, i.e., memory of
episodes) that we have words, as well as motor skills.
experienced in our general knowledge. • It is unconscious-
lives. It involves • For example, London is automatic thought and
conscious thought and the capital of England. is not declarative. For
is declarative. An It involves conscious example, procedural
example would be a thought and is memory would involve
memory of our 1st day declarative. knowledge of how to
at school. ride a bicycle.
 ENCODING AND
RETRIEVAL PROCESS IN
LTM

ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL PROCESS IN LTM
ENCODING
•Encoding Process: Encoding
is the initial stage of memory
formation where information
from the environment is
transformed into a meaningful
representation that can be
stored in long-term memory.
This process involves several
mechanisms and strategies.
26
STORAGE RETRIEVAL
• This concerns with: •Retrieval Process:
1. Where the information Retrieval refers to the
is stored process of accessing and
2. How long the memory recalling stored information
lasts (duration) from long-term memory. It
3. How much can be involves locating and
stored at any time activating the relevant
(capacity) memory traces.
4. And what kind of
information is held.
• The way we store
information affects the
way we retrieve it.

ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL PROCESS IN LTM
ENCODING
1. Attention: Attention directs our focus towards
relevant information and filters out irrelevant
details. It determines what information will be
encoded into memory. For example, when
studying for an exam, paying attention to the
key concepts and main ideas improves
encoding.
2. Elaboration: Elaborative encoding involves
actively processing information and
connecting it to existing knowledge. By
relating new information to what we already
know, we create meaningful associations that
enhance memory formation. For instance, if
you're learning a new word, associating it with
a familiar word or visualizing its meaning can
facilitate encoding.
STORAGE
• Information can only be
stored for a brief duration in
STM (0-30 seconds), but
LTM can last a lifetime
27
RETRIEVAL
1. Retrieval Cues: Retrieval cues
are stimuli or hints that help
trigger the retrieval of specific
memories. These cues can be
external (e.g., context,
environmental cues) or internal
(e.g., emotions, thoughts). For
example, smelling a particular
scent associated with a past
event can trigger the retrieval of
memories associated with that
event.
• .

ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL PROCESS IN LTM
ENCODING
• Organization: Organizing
information helps in encoding
and later retrieval. It involves
structuring information into
meaningful patterns or
categories. Creating outlines,
diagrams, or mind maps can
assist in organizing information
effectively. For example,
categorizing historical events
by time periods or themes aids
encoding and later retrieval
28
STORAGE RETRIEVAL
1. Context-Dependent Retrieval: The
context in which information is learned
can impact retrieval. Memories are
often better recalled in the same or
similar context in which they were
encoded. For instance, if you studied in
a quiet room, you may perform better
on the exam if you take it in a similar
environment.
2. Retrieval Practice: Actively retrieving
information from memory strengthens
memory traces. Testing yourself or
engaging in frequent recall exercises
helps reinforce memory retention and
retrieval. For instance, practicing
flashcards or participating in quizzes
enhances retrieval.
 EXAMPLE 29

Let's say you have a favorite recipe for chocolate chip cookies that you want to
remember and be able to bake from memory.
Encoding: As you follow the recipe, you pay attention to the specific
measurements of ingredients, the mixing instructions, and the baking
temperature and time. By focusing your attention on these details, you encode
the recipe into your long-term memory.
Storage: After baking the cookies a few times, the recipe becomes familiar and
starts to be stored in your long-term memory. The information about the
ingredients, measurements, and steps involved in making the cookies is
consolidated and stored in neural networks in your brain.
Retrieval: Later on, when you want to bake the cookies again, you retrieve the
recipe from your memory. Seeing a picture of a chocolate chip cookie or
thinking about the delicious taste serves as retrieval cues that activate the
associated memory traces. The recipe details come back into your conscious
awareness, allowing you to follow the steps and measurements accurately.
In this example, the encoding process involves paying attention to the recipe
details, while storage occurs through consolidation of the recipe in long-term
memory. During retrieval, retrieval cues such as visual cues or thoughts trigger
the recall of the recipe from memory.
AMNESIA
 31

WHAT IS AMNESIA?
A person’s ability to recall events and experiences involves a
variety of complex brain processes. Researchers still do not
understand exactly what happens when a person commits
something to memory or retrieves information stored in the
brain.
When a person develops amnesia, they often lose memories of
important milestones, key events or people in their life, and vital
facts they have learned.
 TYPES OF AMNESIA
32

TRAUMATIC
FUGUE/
This refers to memory
DISSOCIATIVE
RETROGRADE ANTEROGRADE
loss resulting from a TRANSIENT
hard blow to the head, Rarely, a person can
In some ways the GLOBAL A person with
for instance, in a car forget both their past
opposite of anterograde amnesia and their identity.
accident. The person This is a temporary
anterograde amnesia, cannot remember new They may wake up
may experience a loss of all memory
retrograde amnesia is information. This and suddenly have no
brief loss of and, in severe cases,
when a person cannot usually results from sense of who they are.
consciousness or difficulty forming
remember events that brain trauma, such as The trigger is usually
coma. This type of new memories. This
occurred before their a blow to the head a traumatic event. The
amnesia is usually is very rare and more
trauma, but they can that causes brain ability to remember
temporary, but its likely in older adults
remember what damage. The person commonly returns
duration often with vascular (blood
happened after it. In will have their full within minutes, hours,
depends on the vessel) disease.
rare cases, both memory from the or days, but the
severity of the injury.
retrograde and time before the injury. memory of the
Amnesia can be an
anterograde amnesia triggering event may
important indicator of
can occur together. never come back
concussion
completely.
 33

TYPES OF AMNESIA

POST- SOURCE ALCOHOL- PROSO-

HYPNOTIC AMNESIA INDUCED PAMNESIA
Also called a The person cannot
A person cannot A person can
blackout, this is remember faces.
recall what occurred remember certain
when a bout of People can either
while they information but not
heavy drinking acquire Trusted
experienced how or where they
leaves a person with Source it or be born
hypnosis. got it.
memory gaps with it
 34

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
Alzheimer's disease is a brain disorder that gets worse over
time. It's characterized by changes in the brain that lead to
deposits of certain proteins. Alzheimer's disease causes the
brain to shrink and brain cells to eventually die. Alzheimer's
disease is the most common cause of dementia — a gradual
decline in memory, thinking, behavior and social skills. These
changes affect a person's ability to function.

Memory loss is the key symptom of Alzheimer's disease. Early signs

include difficulty remembering recent events or conversations. But
SYMPTOMS
memory gets worse and other symptoms develop as the disease
progresses. At first, someone with the disease may be aware of having
trouble remembering things and thinking clearly. As symptoms get
worse, a family member or friend may be more likely to notice the
issues.
 35

WERNICKE-KORSAKOFF’S
SYNDROM
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is a neurological
disorder caused by the lack of thiamine (vitamin
B1). The disorder includes Wernicke
encephalopathy and Korsakoff amnesic syndrome
which are not different conditions but different
stages of the same disease (Wernicke-Korsakoff
syndrome). Wernicke's encephalopathy represents
the "acute" phase of the disorder and Korsakoff's
amnesic syndrome represents the disorder
progressing to a "chronic" or long-lasting stage. The
disorder's main features are problems in acquiring
new information or establishing new memories, and
in retrieving previous memories.
 36

KORSAKOFF’S AMNESIC SYMPTOMS

SYNDORME Symptoms include:
Amnesia
Tremor
Korsakoff syndrome (also known as Korsakoff's Coma
amnesic syndrome) is a memory disorder that results Disorientation
from vitamin B1 deficiency and is associated with Vision problems
alcoholism. Korsakoff's syndrome damages nerve
cells and supporting cells in the brain and spinal Most symptoms of Wernicke's encephalopathy can be reversed
if detected and treated promptly and completely. However,
cord, as well as the part of the brain involved with
improvement in memory function is slow and, usually,
memory. incomplete. Without treatment, these disorders can be disabling
and life-threatening.
TREATMENT
Treatment involves:

Replacement of thiamine and providing proper nutrition

and hydration. In individuals with Wernicke's
encephalopathy, it is very important to start thiamine
replacement before beginning nutritional replenishment. In
some cases, drug therapy is also recommended. Stopping
alcohol use may prevent further nerve and brain damage.
 38

PTSD & MEMORY

Definition of PTSD

PTSD stands for Post traumatic stress disorder. It is a mental health

condition that may be diagnosed by a professional when someone has
experienced a traumatic event and is having particular types of problems as
a result.

Symptoms of PTSD

The major types of symptoms experienced by people with PTSD

1. Re-experiencing symptoms
2. Avoidance symptoms
3. Negative changes in your thinking and emotions
4. Hyper arousal or emotional/physical reactivity
 39

PTSD & PATTERN SEPARATION

Most people associate post- traumatic stress disorder with

anxiety, anger, and, at its worst, suicide. But one of the
most pervasive symptoms of PTSD is not directly related
to emotions at all: individuals suffering from a stress-
related disorder experience cognitive difficulties ranging
from memory loss to an impaired ability to learn new
things. One of the most crucial cognitive deficits of
PTSD involves how we handle new experiences and
fold them into the fabric of memory. It’s called pattern
separation—literally, the brain’s way of separating
similar experiences, places, and events.
 40

Even though I may remember 9/11, when I see an airplane

over New York City, I am able to recognize that it’s a
different situation and process it accordingly. Someone in
the same situation who has PTSD may re-experience the
traumatic events of 9/11 and have a panic attack

said Rene Hen, a Columbia University Medical Center

researcher.

Dr. Hen recently led a study showing that boosting the number
of neurons in the adult mouse brain led to improved pattern
separation. The area of the brain that Hen targeted in his study
—the hippocampus—may be where the seemingly disparate
areas of learning and mood come together. Both Hen’s research
and a new study led by Dr. Andrew R Marks may contribute to
potential treatment for PTSD and related anxiety disorders.