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Introduction to
Evolution

Ch. 22
 Chapter 22

An Introduction to Evolution
Key Concepts
• Overview of Evolution
• Evidence of Evolutionary Change
• The Molecular Processes That Underlie Evolution

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 The Theory of Evolution
• Evolution – Heritable change in one or more
characteristics of a population or species from
one generation to the next
• Microevolution – changes in a single gene in a
population over time
• Macroevolution – formation of new species or
groups of species

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 The Theory of Evolution 1

Species
Group of related organisms that share a
distinctive form
Among species that reproduce sexually, members of the
same species are capable of interbreeding to produce
viable and fertile offspring

Population
Members of the same species that are likely to
encounter each other and thus have the opportunity to
interbreed

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 History of the Theory of Evolution
• Empirical thought
Relies on observation to form an idea or hypothesis,
rather than trying to understand life from a non-
physical or spiritual point of view
• In the 1600s, a shift toward empirical thought
encouraged scholars to look for the basic
rationale behind a given process or
phenomenon

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 History of the Theory of Evolution 2

• Mid- to late-1600s, John Ray was the first to

carry out a thorough study of the natural
world
Developed an early classification system
Modern species concept

• Extended by Carolus Linnaeus

• Neither proposed that evolutionary change
promotes the formation of new species

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 Life Forms Are Not Fixed
• Late 1700s, small number of European scientists
suggest life forms are not fixed
• George Buffon says life forms change over time
• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck realized that some
animals remain the same while others change
Believed living things evolved upward toward human
“perfection”
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Example: Giraffe necks

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 Geology & Population Growth
• Uniformitarianism hypothesis from geology
Slow geological processes lead to substantial change
Earth was much older than 6,000 years

• Thomas Malthus, an economist, says that only

a fraction of any population will survive and
reproduce

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 Charles Darwin 1

• British naturalist born in 1809

• Theory shaped by several different fields of
study
Geology
Economics
Voyage of the Beagle

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 Voyage of the Beagle:1831 to 1836
• Darwin’s ideas were most influenced by his
own observations
• He noticed distinctive traits of island species
that allowed them to better exploit their
environment
• Example: Galapagos Island finches
Saw similarities in species yet noted differences that
provided them with specialized feeding strategies

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 Voyage of Beagle

a) Charlies Darwin

b) The voyage of the Beagle

The types of finches studied by Darwin included ground finches, vegetarian finches, tree finches, tree
and warbler finches, and cactus finches. Ground finches have beaks shaped to crush various sizes of
seeds; large beaks can crush large seeds, whereas smaller beaks are better for crushing small seeds.
Vegetarian finches have crushing beaks to pull buds from branches. Tree finches have grasping beaks
to pick insects from trees. Those with heavier beaks can also break apart wood in search of insects.
Tree and warbler finches have probing beaks to search for insects in crevices and then pick them up.
Cactus finches have probing beaks to open cactus fruits and take out seeds.

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 Beak
vs
Forag
ing
Table 22.1

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 Charles Darwin
• Formulated theory of evolution by mid-1840s
• Spent several additional years studying barnacles
• 1856, began writing his book
• 1858, Alfred Wallace sends Darwin an unpublished
manuscript proposing many of the same ideas
• Darwin’s and Wallace’s papers published together
• 1859, Darwin’s On the Origin of Species is published
detailing his ideas with observational support

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 Descent with modification
Evolution based on
Variation within a given species
• Traits heritable – passed from parent to offspring
• Genetic basis was not yet known

Natural selection
• More offspring produced than can survive
• Competition for limited resources
• Individual with better traits flourish and reproduce

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 Example of Natural Selection

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 The Grants Observed Natural Selection
in Galápagos Finches
Grants focused much of their work on Daphne
Major – moderately isolated, undisturbed habitat
and resident finches
Compared beak sizes of parents and offspring
over many years
Birds with larger beaks survived better during
drought years
In the year after drought, average beak depth
increases

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 Gtants Study area and species

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 Grants Experiment:

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 Grants Experiment:

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 Evidence of Evolutionary Change

 Fossil record
 Biogeography
 Convergent evolution
 Selective breeding
 Homologies
o Anatomical
o Developmental
o Molecular

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 Evidences of Evolution

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 Evidences of Evolution

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 Fishapod (Tiktaalik roseae)

Illuminates steps leading to evolution of tetrapods

Transitional form – provides link between earlier and later forms

Had broad skull, flexible neck, eyes on top of head, primitive wrist and
five fingers

Could peek above water and look for prey

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 Transitional Form in Tetrapod: Fishapod

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 Whales

Fossil record spans 50 million years

Terrestrial tetrapod to aquatic animals lacking hind limbs
Order cetacea
• whales
• dolphins
• porpoises

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 Biogeography

Study of the geographical distribution of extinct and modern species

Isolated continents and Island groups have evolved their own distinct
plant and animal communities
Endemic – naturally found only in a particular location
ex: Island fox (Urocyon littoralis) evolved from mainland gray fox
(Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

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 Isolated Island
Evolution of Island Fox

Weight: 3-6 pounds

Last Ice Age,

16,000–18,000 years ago

Advantages of small size?

Other examples

Weight: 7-11 pounds

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 Biogeography
Isolated Continents

Why no placental mammals

in Australia?
(Except few bats and rodent species)

200 mya Australia was connected to

land masses

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 Biogeography
Isolated Continents

Evolution of major animal groups correlated with known changes in the

distribution of land masses on the Earth
First mammals arose 225 mya when Australia was still connected
Placental mammals arose 80 mya after Australia separated
Australia has no large, terrestrial placental mammals

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 Convergent evolution

Two different species from different lineages show similar characteristics

because they occupy similar environments

Examples:
Giant anteater and echidna both have long snouts and tongues to
feed on ants
Aerial rootlets for clinging in English ivy and wintercreeper
Antifreeze proteins in different, very cold water fish

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Convergent
Evolution

• Similar charcteristics
• Analogous structures

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 Selective breeding

Programs and procedures designed to modify traits in

domesticated species
Also called artificial selection
Darwin influenced by pigeon breeders
Nature chooses parents in natural selection while breeders
choose in artificial selection
Made possible by genetic variation
Breeders choose desirable phenotypes
ex: dog breeds, Brassica plants, and corn

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 Same species, striking differences
Artificial selection

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 Artificial selection in wild mustard Figure 23.10

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 Oil Content in the Corn Kernels
Artificial selection

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 Homology

Fundamental similarity due to

descent from a common ancestor
Homology may be
Anatomical
Developmental
Molecular

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 Anatomical homology

Same set of bones in the limbs of modern vertebrates has undergone

evolutionary change for many different purposes
Homologous structures are derived from a common ancestor
Vestigial structures are anatomical structures that have no apparent
function but resemble structures of presumed ancestors
Ear wiggling muscles

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Anatomical
homology:
Homologous
structures
in vertebrates

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 Developmental homology

Species that differ as adults often bear striking similarities during

embryonic stages
Presence of gill ridges in human embryos indicates that humans
evolved from an aquatic animal with gill slits
Human embryos have long bony tails

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 Vestigial Organs in Animals

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 Molecular homology

Similarities in cells at the molecular level show that living species evolved
from a common ancestor
All living species use DNA to store information
Certain biochemical pathways are found in all or nearly all species

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 Molecular homology continued

The same type of gene is often found in diverse organisms

ex: p53 gene plays a role in preventing cancer

Certain genes are found in a diverse array of species
Sequences of closely related species tend to be more similar to each
other than to distantly related species

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Amino acid sequence in p53 protein Figure 23.13

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 The Molecular Processes That Underlie Evolution

Homologous genes – two genes derived from the same ancestral gene
Orthologs occur in separate species
Reveals molecular details of evolutionary change
Two sequences may be similar, but not identical due to the independent
accumulation of different random mutations

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Orthologs:
Homologous genes

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 Gene duplications produce gene families

Paralogs – homologous genes within a single species

Gene duplication can lead to a gene family
Two or more paralogs within the genome of a single organism
ex: Globin genes
Allows for specialized function, expression at different times or in
different tissues

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 Horizontal gene transfer

Exchange of genetic material among different

species
Surprisingly common phenomenon
Can transfer
From prokaryotes to eukaryotes
From eukaryotes to prokaryotes
Between prokaryotes
Between eukaryotes
Widespread among bacteria
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Horizontal Gene Transfer

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 Evolution also occurs at the genomic level

Involves changes in chromosome structure and number

Compare three largest chromosomes in humans and apes

Similar due to close evolutionary relationship

Humans have one large chromosome 2 while apes have it divided
into two separate chromosomes
Chromosome 3 very similar but orangutans have a large inversion
• May have established orangutans as a new species

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Banding Patterns
in chromosomes
Changes in chromosome
structure

Ch 2: distinct in human
Ch 3: distinct in Orangutan

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