Angle Modulation: Frequency modulation and Phase

modulation
• In Frequency Modulation, if the amplitude of the modulating signals
increases then there will be a corresponding increase in the frequency
of the carrier signal from its original frequency fc.
• Similarly, if the amplitude of the modulating signals decrease then
there will be a corresponding decrease in the frequency of the carrier
signal from its original frequency fc.

Equation of an FM wave
• The equation of an FM signal can be written as
SFM(t) = Ac sinՓi ………………………3.1
Փi is the total instantaneous phase of the modulating carrier
• Փi (t) = ∫ ɷi(t) dt…………………………….3.2
• Instantaneous frequency f i(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) ,
as expressed by
• f i(t) = fc + kf m(t)………………………..3.3
• Փi (t) = ∫2π [ fc + kf m(t)]dt …………………3.4
Փi (t) = 2π fc t + 2π kf ∫m(t)dt ………………3.5
Substituting eq(3.5) in eq(3.1) we can get the equation of FM signal
SFM(t) = Ac sin [2π fc t + 2π kf ∫ m(t)dt] ………………..3.6
• kf denotes the frequency sensitivity of the modulator and it is
expressed in Hz per volt.
Thus we have
• SFM (t) = Ac sin [2π fc t + 2π kf 0∫t m (t)dt ] for FM
• SPM (t) = Ac sin [2π fc t + kp m (t)] for PM
Frequency Deviation
• Consider if the modulating signal, m (t) = A mcosɷmt
f i = fc + kf m(t)
fi= fc+kf Amcosɷmt……………3.7
• As can be seen from eq(3.7) the instantaneous frequency of a modulated carrier
is directly proportional to the modulating signal and varies in accordance with
cosɷmt because fc,kf and Am are all constant. Where fd= kf Am
• This is the maximum frequency deviation related to the maximum or peak
amplitude the modulating signal.
fi= fc +fdcosɷmt
• The limiting frequencies of an FM wave are obtained as
fi(max) = fc+fd when cosɷmt= +1
fi(min) = fc-fd when cosɷmt= -1
Where fd = ± kfAm , when cosɷmt= ±1
Modulation Index
• The ratio of the frequency deviation fd and the frequency of the
modulating signal fm is known as the modulation index of the FM wave.

• Let the sinusoidal modulating signal m(t) = A mcos(2 π fmt)

SFM(t) = Acsin [2πfc t+ 2πkf ∫Amcos(2 π fmt)dt]
SFM(t) = Acsin [2πfc t+ fd/fmsinɷmt]
SFM(t) = Acsin [2πfc t+ βsinɷmt]
• In FM broadcasting, the modulating signal causes the carrier
frequency to shift above and below its center frequency.
• The maximum frequency deviation should not exceed ± 75 kHz
from the center frequency.
• Thus, 75k Hz either sides of the center frequency equals 150
kHz, plus a 25 kHz guard band either side, allows a total of 200
kHz for one FM channel.
• In commercial FM broadcasting, the maximum modulating
frequency is limited to 15 kHz. However, it is only 5 kHz in
commercial AM broadcasting.
Deviation Ratio = maximum frequency deviation / maximum modulating
frequency

• In FM broadcasting, Deviation ratio =75 KHz/ 15 KHz = 5

Frequency analysis of the FM wave
• The frequency spectrum of the FM wave is much more complex, that it
will produce an infinite number of sidebands
• Analysis of the frequency components and their respective amplitudes in
FM wave requires use of a complex mathematical integral known as
Bessel function of the first kind of the nth order. Evaluating this integral
for sine wave modulation yields,
SFM(t) = Acsin [2πfc t + mfsinɷmt]
• The only way to solve this equation is by using the Bessel functions. By
using the Bessel functions the equation for FM wave can be expanded as
follows:
S FM (t)  Ac J 0 m f sin ω c t 

Ac J 1 m f sin ω c  ω m t − sinω c − ω m t  

Ac J 2 m f sin ω c  2ω m t − s in ω c − 2ω m t  
Ac J 3 m f sin ω c  3ω m t − s in ω c − 3ω m t  
Ac J 4 m f sin ω c  4ω m t − s in ω c − 4ω m t  
Ac J 5 m f sin ω c  5ω m t − s in ω c − 5ω m t   ... 
Ac J n m f sin ω c  nω m t − s in ω c − nω m t 

w h e re A c  the peak amplitude of the carrier

J n  s o lu tio n to th e n th B e s s e l fu n c tio n fo r a m o d u la tio n in d e x o f m f

m f  FM modulation index

Ac J 0 m f sin ω c t  carrier frequency component

Ac J n m f sin ω c  n ω m t − sin ω c − n ω m t   th e nth -order sideband
• The following observations are made:-
1) In AM, only three frequencies, viz the carrier and two side frequencies are
present in the output. However, FM has an infinite numbers of sidebands, as
well as the carrier in the output. The sidebands are separated from the carrier
by fm , 2 fm , 3 fm , … etc. and the frequency separation between successive
sidebands is the modulating frequency fm.
2) The sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency, i.e.
the sidebands at equal distances from the carrier frequency have equal
amplitude
3) Some of the Bessel coefficients may have negative values of, indicating a
180 phase change for that particular pair of sidebands.
4) How many sideband components have significant amplitude is dependent
on the modulation index.
• 5) As modulation index increases, the value of the particular J
coefficient increases.
• 6) In AM, the sideband power and the total transmitted power
increases with the depth of modulation. However, in FM the total
transmitted power always remains constant. The increased depth of
modulation requires more bandwidth for transmission.
• In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant. It is
not dependent on the modulation index. The reason for this is that
the amplitude of the FM signals i.e. Ec is always constant. AND
the power transmitted is given by,

Where Ec = peak amplitude of FM wave

• Bessel’s function
• Below is the plot of the Bessel functions illustrates the relationship between
the carrier and sideband amplitudes for sine wave modulation as a function
of modulation index, mf.
Bandwidth requirements of FM
• The higher the modulation index, the greater the required system bandwidth as
shown in the Bessel functions.
• In establishing the quality of transmission and reception desired,
a limitation must be placed on the number of significant
sidebands that the FM system must pass.
• This can be implemented by using Carson’s Rule:
BW = 2(fd + f m)
• it is only an approximation used to limit the number of
significant sidebands for minimal distortion.
TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH OF FM WAVE
• The table below indicates the number of effective sidebands on either sides of the
carrier for different values of modulation indices:
Modulation Index
0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30

Number of effective
sidebands on either side of carrier 2 3 4 6 7 8 14 25 35

Total significant sideband 4 6 8 12 14 16 28 50 70

• when the modulation index exceeds unity, there are important higher-
order sidebands components contained in the wave.
• If the carrier frequency is 500 kilohertz. The modulating frequency is 15 kilohertz and
the deviation frequency is 75 kilohertz.
• From table above we see that there are 16 significant sidebands for a modulation index
of 5. To determine total bandwidth for this case, we use:
NARROWBAND AND WIDEBAND ANGLE MODULATION
• In terms of bandwidth, there are two different possibilities – narrowband FM and
wideband FM.
• A narrow band FM is the FM wave with a small bandwidth. The modulation
index mf of narrow band FM is very small .Hence, the spectrum of narrow band
FM consists of the carrier and upper sideband and a lower sideband.
Band width of NBFM becomes
BW= 2(fd + f m) = 2(mf fm+fm)= 2(mf +1) fm ,
BW= 2fm for mf <<1
Wide band FM (WBFM)
• If the modulation index is higher than 1, then it is called wideband FM. Spectrum
contains infinite numbers of sidebands and carrier as against two sidebands and
carrier in NBFM.
BW = 2(fd+fm) = 2(mf fm + fm) =2fm(mf+1)
BW=2mf fm = 2fd when mf >>1
• WIDEBAND FM:
Parameters :
1. modulation index : Greater than 1
2. Maximum deviation: 75 kHz
3. Range of modulating frequency: 30 Hz to 15 kHz
4. Maximum modulation index: 5 to 2500
5. Bandwidth: large, about 15 times higher than BW of narrowband FM

NARROWBAND FM:
parameters :
1.modulation index: less than 1
2. Maximum deviation: 5 kHz
3. Range of modulating frequency: 30 Hz to 3 kHz
4. Maximum modulation index: slightly greater than 1
5. Bandwidth: small. Approximately same as that of AM
Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis.
• 1. At the transmitter the modulating signal is passing through a simple network which amplifies the high
frequency component more the low-frequency component. The simplest form of such circuit is a simple
high pass filter.
• 2. The pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy of the higher content of the higher-frequency signals so
that will tend to become stronger than the high frequency noise component. This improves the signal-to-
noise ratio.
• 3. To return the frequency response to its normal level, a de-emphasis circuit is used at the receiver. This
is a simple low-pass filter
• 4. The de-emphasis circuit provides a normal frequency response.
• The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the high-frequency components
during the transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise
COMPARISION OF FM WITH AM
The amplitude of FM wave is constant, and hence transmitted power is
constant, independent of modulation depth, whereas in AM modulation
depth controls the transmitted power.
In AM, 67% of transmitted power is in the carrier for maximum
modulation depth which is totally wasted as carrier does not carry any
intelligence. In FM, all the transmitted power is useful.
FM receivers use amplitude limiter circuits to eliminate the amplitude
variations caused by noise. Due to this, FM reception is more immune to
noise than AM reception.
By increasing the frequency deviation in FM, it is possible to improve
signal-to noise ratio. AM does not have this feature since in AM,
modulation depth cannot be increased beyond 100%.
For commercial FM transmitting stations a guard band of frequencies is
allocated, this reduces adjacent channel interference, as compared to AM.
FM broadcasting is in the VHF and UHF frequency ranges. In these
frequency ranges there is inherently less noise than in the MW or SW ranges
allotted to AM broad cast.

The following are some of the disadvantages of FM:

For transmission of FM signal, a much larger bandwidth is required than that
required to transmit AM signal.

FM transmitter and receiver are quite complicated, especially from the point
of view of servicing and fault finding/repairing of FM receivers.

The service area of FM transmitter is much less than that for AM. Although
this is advantageous for reduction of adjacent channel interference, it is a
disadvantage for FM mobile communication over a wide area.
GENERATION OF FM WAVES
• There are essentially two basic methods of generating frequency-
modulation waves; they are Indirect FM and Direct FM.
• In the indirect method of FM, the modulating signal first
produces a narrow-band FM waves, and subsequently the
frequency deviation is increased to the desired value using
frequency multiplication techniques.
• In the direct method of producing FM, the carrier frequency is
directly varied according to the incoming message signal
(modulating signal).
Indirect FM
• Basically, a frequency multiplier consists of a nonlinear device
followed by a band pass filter.
• At the output of frequency multiplier there is a n frequency
modulated waves with carrier frequencies f 1, 2f1, … , nf1 and
frequency deviations ∆f1, 2∆f1,….,n∆f1 respectively. The frequency
sensitivity k1 of the narrow band frequency modulator and
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal m(t), both determine
the value of ∆f1.
The band pass filter following the nonlinear device is used:
• To pass the FM wave centered at the carrier frequency nf 1 and with
frequency deviation of n∆f1 ,where n is the frequency
multiplication factor.
• Indirect FM can be generated using Major Armstrong’s Method.
• Major Armstrong’s Method: In this method of indirect FM, the
modulating AF signal first amplitude modulates a carrier obtained from
the crystal oscillator.
• The output of the crystal oscillator and that of audio amplifier are
the two inputs to the balanced modulator, in which amplitude
modulation takes place.
• At the output of the balanced modulator, two side bands are
obtained with the carrier suppressed.
• At the modulator output, only side bands appear. The side bands
are then shifted in phase by 90° and combined with the
unmodulated carrier present at the output of the buffer amplifier.
• The final result is a phase-modulated wave, and indirectly, also
frequency modulated.
• This method will produce the desired phase and frequency modulation only
when the resulting carrier has a maximum phase-shift of 30° or less.
• If the phase shift exceeds 30°, then along with phase modulation, we have
amplitude modulation.
• This represents distortion. But by keeping the phase shift within limits [30°]
pure phase modulation is obtained.

• Let us study a typical FM transmitter based on Armstrong method.

• Assume that the carrier frequency of the transmitter is 90 MHz with a
maximum frequency deviation of 75 KHz, and the audio range is from 50 Hz
to 15 KHz.
• Since the maximum phase shift permissible in this method is 30° [0.524
radian], amplitudes of all audio frequencies in the range will be adjusted to
produce not more than phase shift of the carrier.
• The equivalent frequency deviation, corresponding to maximum amplitude
of AF signal is
Frequency deviation = [50Hz][0.524]
= 26.2Hz
• Audio frequency higher than 50Hz will be attenuated in amplitude, by RC
network, to limit the phase shift to 30°.
• Usually the phase modulation is carried out on a lower carrier frequency,
generated by the crystal oscillator, say 200 KHz.
• Now the problem is to increase the 200 KHz to 90 MHz and ± 26.2Hz to ±
75 kHz. In order to deal with round figures, let’s change the 26.2 Hz to
25Hz.
• If we divide 75 KHz [desired frequency deviation] by 25 Hz [The deviation
we now have] we see that a frequency multiplication of 3000 is necessary.
• Although it may be a trifle difficult to have exactly a 3000 increase using
triplers and doublers, we can get very close, say 2916.
• This frequency multiplication is possible if we use the following chain of
doublers and triplers:
2, 3,3,3,3,3,3,2
• The signal is passed through successive stages until the total
multiplication of 2916 is obtained.
• The frequency multiplication is applied not only to the frequency
deviation but also to the carrier frequency.
• This means that the original 200 KHz carrier will be multiplied 2916
times giving a final output carrier frequency of 583.2 MHz resulting in
value considerably above the desired 90 MHz
• This necessitates the use of the mixers to reduce the carrier frequency to
90 MHz, while keeping the maximum frequency deviation at 75 KHz .
• By assuming a starting frequency deviation of 25Hz, we obtain a ± 72.9 kHz
frequency finally at the output. However with the 26.2Hz proposed we would
Solved example
• Figure below shows the block diagram of a wideband frequency modulator
using the indirect method. This modulator is used to transmit audio signals
containing frequencies in the range of 100 Hz to 15 kHz. The narrowband phase
modulator is supplied with a carrier of frequency f1, = 0.1 MHz by a crystal-
controlled oscillator. A second crystal controlled oscillator supplies a sinusoidal
wave of frequency 9.5 MHz to the mixer.
• The system specifications are as follows: Carrier frequency at the transmitter
output, fc = 100 MHz Minimum frequency deviation, fd = 75 kHz Maximum
modulation index in the phase modulator = 0.3 radians
• (a) Calculate the frequency multiplication ratios n1, and n2 (preceding and
following the mixer), which will satisfy these specifications.
• (b) Specify the values of the carrier frequency and frequency deviation at the
various points in the modulator of Figure below.
1. A sinusoidal modulating signal, m (t) = 4cos2π4 x 1o3 t, is applied to an FM
modulator that has a frequency deviation constant gain of 10 kHz/V. Compute
a) The peak frequency deviation
b) The modulation index.
2. An 880 MHz carrier signal is frequency modulated using a 100 kHz sinusoidal
modulating waveform. The peak deviation of the FM signal is 500 kHz.
a) The highest and lowest frequencies attained by the modulating signal.
b) The modulation index of the FM signal.
c) The band width of FM signal.
d) The band width when the modulating signal amplitude is tripled.
DEMODULATION OF FM WAVE
• In the process of frequency demodulation or detection, the original modulating signal is
recovered from the FM wave. There are basically two methods of frequency
demodulation.
• Direct and Indirect
DIRECT METHOD OF DEMODULATIONS
• The direct method includes (1) slope detector (2) the phase-shift detector, (3) the ratio
detector
SLOPE DETECTION
• The slope detector is essentially a tank circuit which is tuned to a
frequency either slightly above or below the FM carrier frequency.
• View (A) of figure is a plot of voltage versus frequency for a tank
circuit.

• The resonant frequency of the tank is the frequency at point 4.

• Components are selected so that the resonant frequency is higher
than the frequency of the FM carrier signal at point 2.
• The entire frequency deviation for the FM signal falls on the lower
slope of the band pass curve between points 1 and 3.
• As the FM signal is applied to the tank circuit in view (B), the
output amplitude of the signal varies as its frequency swings closer
to, or further from, the resonant frequency of the tank.
• Frequency variations will still be present in this waveform, but it
will also develop amplitude variations, as shown in view (B).
• This is because of the response of the tank circuit as it varies with
the input frequency.
• This signal is then applied to the diode detector in view (C) and the
detected waveform is the output.
• This circuit has the major disadvantage that any amplitude
variations in the RF waveform will pass through the tank circuit and
be detected.
• This disadvantage can be eliminated by placing a limiter circuit
before the tank input.
•
• Advantage: slope detector is a very simple and low cost circuit.
• Disadvantage: The frequency range over which the voltage versus
frequency curve remains linear is very small.
• Therefore, all frequency deviations are not linearly translated into
their corresponding voltage variation.
• When the non linear portion of the curve comes into effect ,the
output of the resonating circuit contains the corresponding voltage
variation and the higher harmonics of this voltage.
• This introduces distortion into the requisite output.
• Slope detector transfers the slightest amplitude variation of the
incoming FM signal to the output because it does not reject the
amplitude variation of the incoming FM signal and responds
equally to this variation.
FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR
• The FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR is also known as the
PHASE-SHIFT DISCRIMINATOR.
• It uses a double-tuned RF transformer to convert frequency
variations in the received FM signal to amplitude variations.
• The drawback to the foster seeley phase discriminator is that it
responds to amplitude variations present in the received FM signal
due to noise.
• The amplitude of the FM signal is constant but during its
propagation through the channel noise is mixed with the signal
resulting in amplitude variation in the received FM signal.
• The drawback of the phase discriminator is overcome by passing
the received FM signal through an amplitude limiter which removes
noise from the peaks of the received signal and limits the amplitude
to a constant value.
• However overcoming the drawback of the phase discriminator
through the amplitude limiter is not desirable because extra
hardware is required for a limiter which increases the cost of the
system.
•
Ratio detector
• A ratio detector is an FM demodulator that does not respond to
the amplitude variation in a received FM signal.
• The output of the ratio detector is proportional to the frequency
deviation of the received FM signal.
• An amplitude limiter is not required in a ratio detector because
the circuit itself checks the amplitude variation and nullifies its
effect.
• Therefore, the output of a ratio detector is the true modulating
signal.