CRPT 2

Course Title:
Approaches and Practices in Pest Management

Course Description:
Philosophies, strategies and methods in pest and disease
management
Integrated Pest
Management
(IPM)

MONINA DYAN R. ELUMBA, MS

Instructor, CAFENR
Table of contents

Definition of Pest Categories of Pest

1 4

2 What makes a Pest? 5 Why Pest Control

3 Pest Complex 6 IPM overview

Define “PEST”
 Definition of PEST
● any organism that interferes with
the activities and desires of
humans (FIFRA)

● can be simply defined as any

organism detrimental to humans
(Glass, nd)
 Definition of PEST
● organisms that diminish the value of resources in which
man is interested (NRC, 1975)

● applies to all noxious and damaging organisms,

including insects, mites, plant pathogen, weeds and
vertebrates (OTA, 1979)
 Definition of PEST
● Insects are pests when they are sufficiently numerous to
cause economic damage (Debacli, 1964).
● “animal or plant whose population density exceeds
some unacceptable threshold level, resulting in
economic damage” (Horn, 1988)
 A pest must cause injury

● In order for an organism to be

considered a pest, a damaging stage
of the organism must be present in
high enough numbers to cause
actual injury to something valued by
people. https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/cabbage-white-caterpillars-
gm611893312-105338823

Cabbage white caterpillars

feeding on cabbage
PEST is not a property of a species

● Being a pest is not an inherent property

of a species but, rather, a species (along
with its population and age distribution at a
given time and place) and a human
valuation of the item being injured or
damaged.
FOUR things required to make a PEST

1. Pest species must be present at the right stage.

2. Environmental criteria must be met.
3. Crop must be a susceptible variety and growth stage.
4. All of the above must occur at the same time.
Pathosystem Concept

● Pathogen – host – environment triad must all be right in

order for an outbreak of disease.

● When pest – crop – environment is right, it leads to

damage.
PEST complex??
 Pest Complex
● The specific
collection of pest
species attacking a
specific commodity
or cropping system
at any given time
and location.

http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/pests-and-diseases
● A given complex is divisible into different “groups”:
○ Invertebrates (arthropods, mollusks)
○ Vertebrates (mammals, fish, birds)
○ Weeds (perennials, summer/winter annuals)
○ Plant Pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes)
Categories of PESTS
 Based on Occurrence

Regular Pest Occasional Pest Seasonal Pest

Frequently occurs on crop; Infrequently occurs; no close Occurs during a particular
close association; rice association; caseworm season every year; red
stem borer on rice, mango stem hairy caterpillar; mango
borer hoppers

Persistent Pest Migrants Secondary Pest

Occurs on the crop Highly mobile and can infest Normally not a problem
throughout the year and crops for a short period until control tactics
is difficult to control of time through applied for another pest
chili thrips, mealy bug movement; Desert enable it to increase and
on guava Locus cause damage; beetle
species
● Accessory species
○ Vectors (often linked with pathogen)
○ Alternate hosts
 Based on Level of Infestation

Epidemic pest Endemic pest Sporadic pest

Sudden outbreak of a Occurrence of the pest Pest occurs in isolated
pest in a severe in a low level in localities during
form in a region at few pockets, some period.
a particular time regularly and
confined to
particular area
 Parameters of insect population levels
● General equilibrium position (GEP)
○ The average density of a population
over a long period of time, around
which pest population tends to
fluctuate due to abiotic and biotic
factors and in the absence of
permanent environmental changes.
● Economic threshold level (ETL)
○ the pest population at which control
measures should be taken to prevent
pest numbers from reaching the
economic injury level (IRRI)

○ action threshold
● Economic injury level (EIL)
○ the pest population is large enough
to cause crop losses more than the
control (IRRI)

○ damage threshold
● Damage boundary (DB)
○ the lowest level of damage which can
be measured

○ ETL is always less than EIL

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fserc.carleton.edu%2Fintegrate%2Fteaching_materials%2Ffood_supply%2Fstudent_materials%2F1181&psig=AOvVaw1U-
PGzI2_GulXGcKTShQUy&ust=1679919488088000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCNCwncDV-f0CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 Based on Threshold Levels
Key Pest
● Most severe and damaging pests
● GEP lies above EIL always
● Spray temporarily bring
population below EIL
● Persistent pests
● The environment must be
changes to bring GEP below EIL
● Cotton bollworm, diamond
backmoth
Major Pest
● GEP lies very close to EIL or
coincides with EIL
● Economic damage can be
prevented by timely and
repeated sprays
● Cotton jassid, rice stem borer
 Minor Pest/Occasional Pest
● GEP is below the EIL usually
● Rarely they cross EIL
● Can be controlled by spraying
● Cotton stainers, rice hispa, ash
weevils
Sporadic Pest
● GEP generally below EIL
● Sometimes it crosses EIL and
cause severe loss in some places
● Sugarcane pyrilla, white grub,
hairy caterpillar
 Potential Pest
● They are not pests at present
● If environment changed may
cause economic loss
● GEP is always less than EIL
● Spodoptera litura is a potential
pest in Northern India
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fserc.carleton.edu%2Fintegrate%2Fteaching_materials%2Ffood_supply%2Fstudent_materials%2F1181&psig=AOvVaw1U-
PGzI2_GulXGcKTShQUy&ust=1679919488088000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCNCwncDV-f0CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 General Terms
● Direct Pests- attack plant part that is harvested, e.g.
fruits, seeds, tubers

● Indirect Pests – feed on or infect the vegetative organs

of the plant, e.g. leaves, stems, roots
 Comparison of Direct and Indirect Pests
Characteristic Direct Indirect
Commodity Non-Marketable Marketable
Yield-Pest
Simple Complex
Relationship
Pest Status Usually Key Pest Any
Insects &
Pest Group Any
Pathogens
Farmer Tolerance Low Higher
 Injury vs. Damage
● Injury
○ Any change in quantity and/or quality of an
individual plant or a crop, caused by a harmful
organism or by abiotic factors such as hail and frost
● Damage
○ Any reduction in quantity and/or quality of yield
“Injury” is biological
and “Damage” is
economic
● Loss
○ The reduction in financial returns per unit area due
to harmful organism
Why Control
Pest?
● Worldwide, an estimated 20-40% of crop yield is lost to pests and
diseases.
● Losses of staple cereal (rice, wheat, maize) and tuber crops (potatoes
and sweet potatoes) directly impact food security and nutrition.
● Losses in key commodity crops such as banana and coffee have
major impacts on both household livelihoods and national
economies.
-CABI
General Impact of Pests -- Injury

• Consumption of plant parts

• Chemical toxins, elicitors, and signals
• Physical damage
• Loss of harvest quality
• Vectoring of pathogens
• Direct contamination
General Impact of Pests – Non-injury

● Costs incurred to implement controls

● Environmental and social costs
● Regulatory costs (embargoes, quarantines,
shipment costs, etc.)
 Crop Injury in More Detail
● Crop Injury
○ Tissue Injury
■ Leaves
■ Structural
■ Roots
■ Flowers and Fruiting/Reproductive Tissues
■ General Systemic Injury
○ Weed Effects
■ Competition for Water, Light, Nutrients
■ Allelopathy
■ Other Economic Effects
 Tissue Injury to Leaves
Bleaching - Leaf turns white or
nearly so. Usually caused by using
the wrong herbicide.
 Tissue Injury to Leaves
Crinkling Leaf takes on a crinkled texture.
Usually associated with viruses or toxic effects of saliva from homopterous insects.

Crinkling may occur throughout the leaf (left) or may be confined to edges (right).
Tissue Injury to Leaves

• Cupping and Curling Leaves cup

up or down, or they curl inward
from the edges.

• Downward cupping along main

vein of each leaflet in soybeans
caused by Bean Common Mosaic
Potyvirus
Tissue Injury to Leaves
Edge Feeding Leaves chewed and
eaten from the edges. Feeding
lesions can have smooth or jagged
edges. Usually caused by insects
w/chewing mouthparts.

Leaf edge feeding on rhododendron leaves by

adult black vine root weevils.
Tissue Injury to Leaves
Hole Feeding - Leaves have holes
chewed through them. Caused by
insects w/chewing mouthparts.

Yellow poplar weevil adult feeding

on yellow poplar
Tissue Injury to Leaves
Mines Caused by small, immature
beetles or flies that live in-between the
upper and lower leaf surfaces. The shape
of the mine, along with the plant species
being attacked, is useful in identifying the
pest species involved.

Frass-linear leaf mine on birch leaf.

Mines come in many shapes.
Tissue Injury to Leaves

Mottling - Leaf is not uniform in

color but is, instead, a mottled
mixture of different shades of green
to yellow.

Soybean leaf mottling caused by the

Bean Pod Mottle Virus.
Tissue Injury to Leaves
Necrosis Areas of dead tissue which usually sloughs off over time.

Necrosis simply means dead

tissue and may occur in any
pattern. Necrosis may be in
spots (top left), on leaf
margins (above), or follow
leaf veins (bottom left).
Other patterns are possible
as well.
Tissue Injury to Leaves
Rolling Leaf is rolled up like a cigar. Usually caused by caterpillars
that use the rolled leaf as a pupation chamber.

Leaves may be rolled entirely (above) or only

partially (left).
Tissue Injury to Leaves
Skeletonization - Leaf tissue between the veins is removed but the
veins remain intact leaving a skeleton-like appearance.

Lindin leaf skeletonized by

Japanese beetle.
Note that the distal leaf tissue is
relatively normal looking
indicating that the leaf veins are
fully functional.
 Tissue Injury to Leaves
Spots Caused by fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases. Spots vary in size,
shape and number and may be solid or only peripheral (e.g. ring spot, frog-
eye spot).

Viral ring spot on

purple cone flower Fungal leaf spot on soybean

Bacterial leaf spot on pepper

 Structural Tissue Injury
● Galls (may be on any tissue)
● Interference with transport
○ Xylem injury
○ Phloem injury
● Interference with structural support
● Shape/appearance impact
○ Abnormal growth
○ Shoot dieback
 Galls
Can occur on all tissues;
leaves, stems/trunks,
branches, roots, etc.

Ash flower galls caused

by a mite Galls on oak leaves from cynipid
wasps

Olive knot gall (caused

by Pseudmomonas
Western gall rust on Ponderosa Soybean roots with galls from root knot
bacteria) on olive main
pine branch nematode (right) vs. healthy root (left).
trunk
 Structural Tissue Injury -- Xylem

Many insects, such as the squash Tomato wilt is caused by fungi in

vine borer feed on xylem tissue. the genus Fusarium which plugs
xylem tissue preventing
water/mineral transport.
 Structural Tissue Injury -- Phloem
Bark beetle gallery (left): The adult Beetle lays a line of eggs
along a gallery. The grubs hatch, eat phloem tissue until they
mature.

Phloem discoloration by San Jose scale on Phloem discoloration and necrosis caused by
apple. spiroplasma infection.
Structural Tissue Injury – Interference with
Structural Integrity

Stalk breakage (lodging) caused by fungal stalk rot (left) and

European corn borer (right)
Structural Injury – Abnormal Growth

Many plant pathogens and some insects cause abnormal

growth in plants. Common forms are called rosettes (left) and
witch’s brooms (right).
Root Injury – Fibrous Roots

Varying degrees of corn rootworm injury (left) and resulting lodged plants (right)

Phytophthora
root rot on alfalfa
(left); Fusarium
root rot on
soybean (right)
 Root Injury – Storage Organs

Black rot on carrot (left), nematode injury to carrots (middle), carrot

weevil injury (right)
 Apple scab on apple
Flower & Fruit Injury

Codling moth in apple

Left: Western flower thrips

feeding injury on
Bean pod mottle virus in
impatiens.
soybeans (left) vs. uninfected
beans (right)
 Weed Effects
Weed Groups
● Algae (aquatic systems)
● Mosses/liverworts (turf & nurseries)
● Ferns/horsetails (pastureland, horticultural crops)
● Gymnosperms (rangeland, forests, long-term no-till
systems)
● Angiosperms [monocotyledon & dicotyledon] (annuals,
biennials, perennials)
THE IPM Concept

1. IPM has broad application:

○ Integrates management of all pests.
○ Holistic approach; ecologically based.
○ Can be applied to any ecosystem.
2. What does IPM integrate?
○ Multiple pest management tactics (chemical, biological,
cultural, mechanical).
○ Management of multiple pests (insects, weeds, disease
pathogens, nematodes, vertebrates, etc.).
○ pest management tactics on an area-wide basis (many pest
control situations are better handled on a large-scale or regional
basis).
3. Reduces pests to tolerable levels
○ Does not emphasize pest eradication or elimination.

4. Incorporates economic sustainability

○ Economic Injury Level and Economic Threshold concepts
○ Can also incorporate other important factors such as
maintenance of aesthetic quality.

5. Incorporates environmental and social concerns.

Introducing “Pest Management”
● “Management” - a process by which information is
collected and used to make good management decisions to
reduce pest population impacts in a planned, coordinated
way.

● Requires:
○ Tolerance
○ Information
○ Strategy
 Introducing “Pest Management”
Integrated – a focus on interactions of pests, crops, control methods and the
environment rather than on individual weeds, insects or diseases. This
approach considers all available tactics and how they fit in with other
agricultural practices.

Pest – a species that conflicts with our profit, health or convenience. If a

species does not exist in numbers that seriously affect these factors, it is not
considered a pest.

Management – a way to keep pests below the levels where they can cause
economic damage. Management does not mean eradicating pests. It means
finding tactics that are both effective and economical and that keep
environmental damage to a minimum.
 IPM Defined

IPM – A system that maintains the population of any pest, or

pests, at or below the level that causes damage or loss, and
which minimizes adverse impacts on society and environment.

Attempts to balance the benefits of pest control actions with

the costs when each is considered in the broadest possible
terms.
IPM cont…
● “an approach that employs a combination of techniques to control the
wide variety of potential pests that may threaten crops.” – US Council
on Environmental Quality (1972)

● “a decision-based process involving coordinated use of multiple tactics

for optimizing the control of all classes of pests …” – RJ Prokopy

● “an effective and environmentally-sensitive approach to pest

management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices.” –
Dhawan & Peshin, 2009
IPM key points from Kogan, 1998
● (1) integration meant the harmonious use of multiple methods
to control single pests as well as the impacts of multiple pests;

● (2) pests were any organism detrimental to humans, including

invertebrate and vertebrate animals, pathogens, and weeds;
● (3) IPM was a multidisciplinary endeavor; and

● (4) management referred to a set of decision rules based on

ecological principles and economic and social considerations.
GOALS of IPM
Optimize profits Reduce environmental
1 Over the long term 4 contamination and cost

Sustain resource Utilize natural biological

2 Agricultural or natural 5 control

More rational use of Minimize resistance

3 pesticides 6 problems
 Minimize pest resurgence and
7 secondary pest outbreaks

8 Food safety

9 Worker safety
 Thanks!
Do you have any questions?

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 For the next meeting…
● Submit ¼ index card with name, student number and has a 1 x 1
picture on the upper right corner

● Assignment: What are the different management

tactics/strategies in IPM. Briefly explained
and give examples. (A4 bondpaper)