STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENTS

4HYD211 - 2024
by
Dr. Rendani Makahane

Dept. of Hydrology – Office no 118

makahaner@unizulu.ac.za
 WHERE TO FIND STREAMFLOW DATA

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 STREAMFLOW GAUGE

• Also called a streamgage is a structure

installed beside a stream or river that contains
equipment that measures and records the
water level (called gage height or stage) of the
stream.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 WHY MEASURE STREAMFLOW?

• To establish a baseline profile (research

studies and infrastructure designs)
• Provide the local community with an early
warning of dangerous flood conditions when
the streamflow exceeds the baseline
• Visualise the impact of floods using accurate
modeling tools coupled with historical flood
observations

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 MEASUREMENTS OF STREAMFLOW

• Avoid intersecting streams just upstream of

the site, tidal areas, backwater zones where
water downstream backs up behind an
obstacle such as a bridge, and all areas where
turbulent flow occurs.
• Obey straight channels, parallel banks, a
uniform slope, a clean cross-section, and
uniform bed roughness

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 PLANNING A STREAMFLOW GAUGING NETWORK
• The objective of a network is to create an organised system for the collection of streamflow
information.
• The information required by a specific area is dependent on the needs of that area and
these needs will vary with the level of development of the area, this changes over time.
• It is a major function of the hydrologist to estimate flow at ungauged catchments, a well-
designed network will greatly aid this task.
• When assessing an area for network design, the following stagewise development should
be followed:
• Stage 1 background research on the location and characteristics of the area these include:
• size
• drainage basin or political entity (state, country)
• drainage pattern
• surface relief
• geological structure
• vegetation
• climate
• This information is obtainable from published material (maps, reports etc.) and will give
abroad comprehension of the situation.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology - 4HYD211

by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 PLANNING A STREAMFLOW GAUGING
NETWORK
• Stage 2 practical planning
• existing measuring stations identified, assessed and plotted on maps of the area
• existing data assembled and its validity checked
• With reference to stages 1 and 2 the area is then evaluated to create a suitable network:
• Every major river and its main tributaries should be gauged near their outflow
points.
• If rivers are to be developed (power, irrigation, water supply) then they should be
monitored.
• If rivers already do, or are likely to, cause a problem (flood risk) then they too
should be gauged.
• The network as now outlined should then be evaluated to identify gaps and to
adhere to station density requirements. The minimum size of drainage area to be
gauged is determined by the level of regional development, the hydrological,
geological, climatological, and topographical characteristics, and the possible
future information needs. This varies both within the catchment and the region.
• Throughout this process it must be borne in mind that it is impossible to gauge all streams
at every site where data may possibly be needed. Financial restraints are always of major
importance and gauging stations may be relocated after a period of time to expand the
overall comprehension of the region.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 MEASUREMENT OF STREAMFLOW
• Stage 3 determination of further station needs
• The density of the network depends on the nature of the terrain, the present and
predicted future water demands, and the costs of establishment and operation of the
network. Three main types of station:
• a) Primary - permanent stations to measure all ranges of discharges, observations,
and records to be accurate and complete.
• b) Secondary - operate for as long as necessary to obtain a satisfactory correlation
of record with a primary station. These are to provide hydrological knowledge of
rivers likely to be exploited in the future. Range and accuracy should be as accurate
as is financially possible.
• c) Special - stations that serve particular needs (reservoir levels, water abstraction
points, project operation, research, irrigation schemes, etc.) these may be
permanent or temporary and may form part of the primary/secondary network.
• Stage 4 planning design and construction of new stations
• priorities should be assigned to the planned stations and the development should be
programmed to follow this order. Frequent re-evaluation of the region’s needs should
occur and adjustments should be made to the programme if necessary.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 MEASUREMENT OF STREAMFLOW
• To measure the volume of streamflow passing a point in a river you need to know:
• the mean velocity of the water flowing past the point (m/s)
• the cross-sectional area of the river at that point (m2)
• The discharge (m3/s) is the product of these two values.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 MEASUREMENT OF WATER
LEVEL (STAGE)

The water stage is the elevation of the water surface above an

arbitrary datum. This datum is set at zero and is either a point
slightly below the level of zero flow or is taken as the level of the
lowest notch of a weir.
Manual gauges
• STAFF GAUGES (GAUGE PLATES)
• look like oversized rulers, that are permanently installed in a
body of water
• A simple method by which the water level is read visually. They
consist of one pole or a series of poles that cover the range of
experienced flows. They are designed to be read at a distance.
• As they have to be read manually they are located at sites of
importance where a local observer is available (water extraction
points, bridges, piers, reservoirs, etc.). They are also located at
recording stations to provide a check on the instruments.
• For these gauges to be of use they have to be read frequently
and accurately, they are poor at recording floods and peaks but
are very useful in recording reservoir levels and large rivers
where the water level changes slowly.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
CREST STAGE GAUGES

• These provide low-cost supplementary data

on peak floods.
• They are usually used in conjunction with
staff gauges where recorders are not
justified.
• The purpose of these is to provide an
indication of the maximum flood level
experienced between visits to a gauging
station.
• It consists of a vertical pipe that has holes at
the bottom, inside this pole, a staff gauge
and a small amount of ‘’flour’’ records the
water elevation.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 MEASUREMENT OF WATER LEVEL (STAGE)
RECORDING/TELEMETRIC GUAGUES
• These consist of some type of measuring sensor linked to a recording device.
• The advantage of such devices is to continuously monitor the changes in water level over time.
• The recording instrument can be either mechanical or electrical.
• Clockwork-driven paper charts are common and provide a graphical trace of the river hydrograph,
they are also useful for instant detection of faults.
• Accuracy is determined by selection of pulley wheels and gearing mechanisms.
• The main problem with such instruments is that the data is not available in computer readable
form and hence time consuming data entry methods have to be employed.
• Electrical data-loggers have been developed to overcome this problem with the pulley giving off
electrical impulses as it turns which are then recorded on digital tape or micro-chips.
• This also enables access of the data from a remote source by radio or telephone links.
• Often both the mechanical and the electrical methods are used in conjunction to ensure
continuous data capture

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 RECORDING GUAGUES
• FLOAT RECORDERS
• River water is tapped off to a stilling well
(to reduce turbulence) which contains a
float suspended from a pulley.
• As the water level changes, the float rises
or falls and the pulley turns.
• This pulley is connected to a recording
device which monitors the changes in
water level with respect to time.
• Stilling well design is important,
turbulence should be avoided and the
access of water to and from the well
should be hindered.
• Suspended debris in the river should be
prevented from entering the well and the
intake pipes must not silt up (blocked by
silt).
© 2024, Department of Hydrology -
4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 RECORDING GUAGUES
• PRESSURE SENSORS
• Compressed air or gas is released at the pressure point placed at the bottom of the river. A
pressure gauge measures the gas pressure which in turn is equal to the water column above
the pressure point.
• The data is received in electrical form and is suitable for storing in digital form.
• The advantages of this system are that no stilling well is required and the data is easily stored
and transmitted.
• Problems include the difficulty in obtaining immediate access to the recorded data and more
difficult fault location.
• The technology required to maintain and service these sensors is also too high for untrained
personnel

© 2024, Department of Hydrology - 4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani

Makahane
 RECORDING GUAGUES
Radar Streamflow gauge
• Typically mounted on a
bridge to determine the
stage.
• The sensor sends radar
signals to the water
• Depending on how long it
takes for the signal to hit the
water and come back, the
depth of water can be
determined
• Stage is measured and
recorded every 15 minutes.
© 2024, Department of Hydrology - 4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani
Makahane
 MEASUREMENT OF WATER VELOCITY
• The mean velocity is measured using a current meter and the cross-sectional area from a survey of the site.
• As velocity and area change over time it is not practical to conduct this exercise repeatedly. Therefore the
main objective when first setting up a gauging station is to derive the relationship between these
parameters and the easily measured parameter of water level
• Once these relationships are derived then a continuous record of discharge can be obtained from
continuously measured water level data.
• The simplest method for determining the velocity of flow is by timing the movement of a float over a known
distance.
• This however is inaccurate as the water velocity varies with depth and across the cross section.
• It is therefore more preferable to use a calibrated current meter and to measure the velocity at many points
within the river.
• Most commonly used is a propeller-type meter which rotates in response to the flow through it.
• The number of revolutions experienced over a period of time are recorded and the velocity is then
calculated using a calibration equation for the instrument.
• Discharge measurement methods can be classified into continuous and occasional measurements. a
continuous measurement being one where the river discharge can be calculated fully in relation to time.
• An occasional measurement is conducted to gain specific information with regard to discharge at a
particular time in order to add to the information available for a river, or to calibrate continuous
measurements.
© 2024, Department of Hydrology -
4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE
• Discharge measurement methods can be classified into continuous and occasional
measurements. A continuous measurement being one where the river discharge can be
calculated fully in relation to time.
• An occasional measurement is conducted to gain specific information with regard to discharge at
a particular time in order to add to the information available for a river, or to calibrate
continuous measurements.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP
• THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A RELIABLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STAGE WHICH IS CONTINUOUSLY
MONITORED AND THE DISCHARGE IS ESSENTIAL AT ALL RIVER GAUGING STATIONS.
• THIS CALIBRATION OF THE GAUGING STATION IS DEPENDENT ON THE NATURE OF THE CHANNEL.
• CONDITIONS IN A NATURAL RIVER ARE RARELY STABLE FOR ANY LENGTH OF TIME SO THE
RELATIONSHIP MUST BE CHECKED REGULARLY ESPECIALLY AFTER LARGE FLOODS.
• DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS ARE MADE FOR THE WHOLE RANGE OF EXPERIENCED FLOWS AT THE SITE
AND THESE ARE PLOTTED AGAINST THE RECORDED STAGES.
• THE ARRAY OF POINTS USUALLY LIES ON A CURVE THAT IS APPROXIMATELY PARABOLIC. A BEST FIT
CURVE IS DRAWN THROUGH THE POINTS AND FROM THIS A RATING TABLE AND RATING EQUATION
CAN BE DETERMINED.
• FROM EITHER OF THESE, THE DISCHARGE AT ANY STAGE CAN BE DETERMINED.
• THE MAJOR PROBLEM IN THE CREATION OF THE CURVE IS THE COVERAGE OF ALL EXPERIENCED FLOWS.
IT IS EASY TO OBTAIN VALUES FOR MEAN FLOWS BUT TO GAUGE THE RARER EXTREMES IS MORE
DIFFICULT.
• TO OVERCOME THIS PROBLEM THE RATING CURVE MAY BE EXTENDED BY EXTRAPOLATION WITH
REGARD TO HYDRAULIC CONDITIONS AT THE SITE.
• THIS TECHNIQUE IS ADEQUATE BUT EVEN SO ATTEMPTS SHOULD BE MADE TO UNDERTAKE FLOW
GAUGING DURING THE EXTREME EVENTS.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENTS
• A) STAGE - DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP (RATING
CURVE)
• It is assumed that there is a unique relationship
between the depth of water and the discharge
• This relationship is predicted or estimated by
theoretical reasoning based on current meter flow
gaugings and analysis of river characteristics
such as bottom slope and bed roughness.
• Generally this relationship is applied to an 'open
section' of a river where the water stage (depth) is
measured continuously.
• The continuous record of the stage is converted to Q
streamflow by applying a mathematical rating
curve logQ
• The rating curve is developed from a number of
physical discharge measurements collected over
some time and a range of stages

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENTS
• B) WEIRS AND FLUMES
• Here a structure is built across a river in
order to confine and stabilise the flow to
enable a stage-discharge relationship to
be calculated more accurately.
• The biggest difference between a flume
and weir is that flow goes THROUGH a
flume and OVER a weir.
• Again, the water stage is measured
continuously and theoretical reasoning is
applied to produce a 'weir formula' that
enables discharge to be calculated for
any particular stage. Ideal conditions
must be assumed and care should be
taken not to apply the formula beyond the
design specifications for the weir
(exceedance of the maximum weir stage,
submergence blockages or damage to the
structure).
© 2024, Department of Hydrology -
4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 OCCASIONAL MEASUREMENTS
A) VELOCITY - AREA MEASUREMENTS
• This is a single measurement of the discharge at a particular site using a current
meter to compute the velocity of the water at various points across a cross section of
a known area of the river. From the information gained, the discharge at a particular
stage can be calculated.
B) DILUTION METHODS
• These methods are based on the injection of a known quantity of a substance into a
river and measuring its travel time and dilution as it progresses downstream.
C) SLOPE - AREA METHOD
• This method is used for estimating the discharge that occurred at the peak of a recent
flood event in order to gain information on extreme floods or to extend a stage-
discharge relationship beyond the confines of a control structures design capacity.
D) FLOATS
• This method allows for a quick estimation of the velocity of a river to be determined.
Objects that float are thrown into a river and timed as they pass two points a known
distance apart. Several floats should be used which should be sited at different points
across the cross-section

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 VELOCITY - AREA MEASUREMENTS
THE CALCULATION OF DISCHARGE FROM THE VELOCITY AND DEPTH MEASUREMENTS CAN
BE MADE EITHER USING THE MEAN SECTION OR THE MID-SECTION METHOD

THE MEAN SECTION METHOD

In this method, averages of the mean
velocities in the vertical and of the
depths at the boundaries of a section
are taken and multiplied by the width
of the sub-division/segment.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology - 4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani

Makahane
(B) THE MIDSECTION METHOD
• In this method, the mean velocity and depth measured at a sub-division point are multiplied by
the segment width measured between the mid-points of neighboring segments.
• Some flows are omitted at the edges of the cross-section and therefore the first and last
verticals should be sited as near to the banks as possible

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 DILUTION GAUGING
• This method may be used in cases where the conventional velocity-area method cannot be
used.
• The discharge is determined over the length of the river rather than at a single point.
• A known quantity of some exotic substance is introduced into the river. samples are withdrawn
at a downstream point.
• The substance injected must be exotic to the stream, must be stable, must not be harmful to the
biotic community in the concentrations encountered, must not react with anything in the
stream, must be relatively inexpensive, and must be detectable in minute quantities.
• Materials that have these qualifications include common salt, rhodamine b and rhodamine w,
radioactive gold198, and radioactive sodium24
• The downstream sampling point must be far enough downstream to achieve complete mixing
across the stream.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 DILUTION GAUGING
• There are two approaches:
• Constant rate injection method
• A chemical of known concentration is continuously added in water at a constant rate
until the constant concentration is measured downstream at the sampling point
• the equation below is used to compute discharge:

• Q= Injection Solution Flow Rate, C1=concentration of injection solution,

C0=background concentration of chemical in river, C2= concentration of chemical in
the sampling site
• Gulp injection/integration method
• A known volume of the tracer, V of concentration C1 is added in bulk. At the sampling
point, the varying concentration, C2 is measured regularly during the passage of the
tracer
• Q can be calculated as:

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
© 2024, Department of Hydrology -
4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
 FLOAT-AREA METHOD
• The float-area or float-velocity method is a method that is used during periods of
flood when the conventional velocity-area method cannot be used due to rapidly
changing discharge or because of hazards in handling equipment in deep and high-
velocity conditions.
• A reach of the river is selected that displays a fairly uniform cross-section and a
distance parallel to the center-line of the river is marked along one bank. Specially
prepared floats may be used to measure the velocity.
• Two observers are stationed at each end of the measured range.
• The upstream observer signals to the second observer when the float passes his
station.
• The downstream observer starts a stopwatch upon the signal from the upstream
observer and stops it when the float passes his downstream station.
• Several floats should be measured especially if the stream is wide and these floats
should be introduced at uniform intervals across the width of the river.
• The more floats that are used, the more accurate the result will be.

© 2024, Department of Hydrology -

4HYD211 by Dr. Rendani Makahane
END!!