Introduction to

Vibration Theory
(Waveform & Spectrum)
 What
What is
is Vibration?
Vibration?
The cyclic or pulsating motion of a
machine or machine component
from its point of rest.

Stiffness
Mass

Damping
Dynamic
Resistance
 What causes vibration ?
• A force changing in direction
• A force changing in magnitude
• Friction (rub)

• Any combination of the above

VIBRATION REPRESENTS...

• The SYMPTOM of a problem

• A destructive mechanism
promoting fatigue or wear
The vibration’s “unique characteristics”
will be determined by the nature of the
developing fault

(unbalance, electrical, random forces,

impacts)
 VIBRATION
CHARACTERISTICS
• AMPLITUDE. HOW MUCH.

• FREQUENCY. HOW OFTEN.

• PHASE. WHEN.
 Characteristics of Vibration
• Amplitude = Quantity

• Frequency = # of Events

• Phase = Relative Timing Between Events

– comparative of two measurements or measurement &
shaft position (during balancing)
– lost when waveforms are transposed to spectra
 Reminder
• Amplitude Response = Dynamic Force
Dynamic Resistance

• More force yields more vibration

• More resistance (mass, stiffness, damping at

resonance) means less vibration
 Peak Acceleration

Peak Velocity

Dis
Dista
tan
nce
Time

ce
Period T (time) 1 Cycle
F
 VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
• DISPLACEMENT
WAVEFORM
MaximumVelocity
Minimum
Minimum Acceleration
Velocity 90
Upper Limit
DISPLACEMENT

Maximum
Minimum
Velocity
Acceleration

Neutral Position 18
TIME
0
Minimum
Maximum
Velocity
Acceleration
Lower Limit
Period(T) 270
(1 complete cycle)
DISPLACEMENT
TIME

VELOCITY
TIME

ACCELERATION
TIME
 CALCULATION
CALCULATION OF
OF VIBRATION
VIBRATION DISPLACEMENT,
DISPLACEMENT,
VELOCITY
VELOCITY AND
AND ACCELERATION
ACCELERATION
• Where :
A = Acceleration (g pk), V = Velocity (mm/s pk), D = Displacement (um pk-pk)
2
60 60
• D= 2 V x 10 3 D= 2 2  RPM g x A x 10 6
2  RPM
= 19.10 x 103 V / RPM (um pk-pk) = 1.79 x 109 A / (RPM)2 (um pk-pk)

• V = 0.5 2  RPM D x 10 -3 V= 60 g x A x 10 3
60 2  RPM

= 52.36 x 10-6 D x RPM (mm/s pk) = 93.68 x 103 A / RPM (mm/s pk)
2
• A = 0.5 2  RPM D x 10 -6 A = 2  RPM V x 10 -3
g g
60 60
= 0.559 x 10-9 D x (RPM)2 (g pk) = 10.67 x 10-6 V x RPM (g pk)
 Amplitude Units

• Magnitude of the vibration signal / Quantity

– Displacement (Mils) >
– Velocity (in/s) > RELATED
– Acceleration (g’s) >
– Spike Energy (g/SE) > STAND ALONE
Cyclic Motion Studies
Cyclic Motion relative to
repetitively applied force
Concept of a Simple Time
Waveform

• Paper feeds as the

block oscillates up
and down
Time Domain
 Time Domain
T

Time (SEC)

WHERE

A = Amplitude

T = Period of vibration cycle

Vibration Characteristics’
Parameters
• Frequency - • CPM or Hertz

• Amplitude - • Displacement
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Spike Energy
– dissimilar parameter

• Phase - • Relative Motion

– angle
WHICH
WHICH MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT PARAMETER
PARAMETER
SHOULD
SHOULD WE
WE USE?
USE?

• Stress = Displacement

 0-600 CPM

• Fatigue = Velocity Vibration Institute

recommendation

 600-120,000 CPM

• Force = Acceleration

 Above 120,000 CPM

 MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS,
PARAMETERS,
WHAT
WHAT DO
DO THEY
THEY MEASURE?
MEASURE?
• DISPLACEMENT - How far it moves
(Microns or Mils)

• VELOCITY - How fast it moves

(mm/sec or in/sec)

• ACCELERATION - How quickly velocity

changes
(g or mm/sec2 or
in/sec2)
WHICH
WHICH MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT PARAMETER
PARAMETER
SHOULD
SHOULD WE
WE USE
USE ??
• The measurement parameter that will give the
greatest response to any change in machinery
condition whatever the cause

• DISPLACEMENT : 0 cpm - 600 cpm

(STRESS)

• VELOCITY : 600 cpm - 120 Kcpm

(FATIGUE)

• ACCELERATION : >120 Kcpm

(FORCE)
 • For the time waveform shown in Figure 1,
what is the “PEAK AMPLITUDE” ?

2
1
Amplitude Time
0
(in/s) (m Sec)
-1 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
-2
Figure 1

A) 2.0 in/s
B) 0.2 in/s
C) 3.0 in/s
D) 4.0 in/s
Real Vibration is Complex
 FFT
• Fourier Transform

– Developed in the late 18th / early 19th century

by Baron Joseph Jean Baptiste Fourier, French
Mathematician and high level civil servant
(under Napoleon)

– Mathematical algorithm to decompose a

complex function into a series of simple sine
and cosine waves
 FFT = Fast Fourier Transform

• Further development to rapidly calculate a

spectrum’s frequency contents

– Bell Labs, circa 1965

 COMPARISON
COMPARISON OF
OF FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
AND
AND TIME
TIME DOMAINS
DOMAINS
Simple Wave forms

Complex Waveform

FMAX
Amplitude 9X
5X
3X Frequency
1X
Spectrum
Plot
Time Domain
(Sec or Min) Frequency Domain
TMAX (CPM or Hertz)
 VIBRATION FREQUENCY.
The time required to complete one full cycle of vibration is
called THE PERIOD. i.e.:-

If one period is completed in one fifth of a second, the

vibration frequency would be 5 cycles per second (5
hz) or 300 cycles per minute (300 cpm).

FREQUENCY IS THUS
THE RECIPROCAL OF
THE PERIOD.
 FREQUENCY
• DISPLACEMENT AND FREQUENCY FROM THE
TIME WAVEFORM

Upper Limit

DISPLACEMENT
Neutral Position
TIME

Lower Limit
Period(T)
(1 complete cycle)

Frequency = 1 1 = Cycles
=
Period T Second
Frequency : Events per Unit of Time
• Measure of the number of cycles of
vibration that occur in a specific period of
time
• Tells us at what rate the vibration is
occurring
• Reciprocal of the Period (T)
• Measured in Hz /CPM
– Converted by a factor of 60
• CPM relates directly to machine RPM
 Period
FREQUENCY = 1/PERIOD
• The time required to
complete one full
cycle of vibration

• Measured in seconds,
msecs or microsecs
(sec)
 • From the time waveform below, calculate
the frequency of the vibration in CPM

Amplitude
(in/s) Time
(m Sec)
0 3 6 9 12

A) 100
B) 333
C) 2,000
D) 20,000
Calculation of Frequency from
Time Waveform
One cycle (period) = 3 msec
3
= .003 sec/cycle
1000
1
.003 = 333.3333 cycles/sec
333.333 x 60 = 19999.998 cycles/minute
Answer = 20,000 cpm
 Significance of Frequency
• Essential to pinpoint the cause of a machine
problem
• Most vibration problems exhibit frequencies
DIRECTLY related to the rotational speed(s) of
the machine
• Process of elimination to narrow down the exact
machine fault
• Problems are NOT always exact multiple of rpm
 WHY
WHY IS
IS VELOCITY
VELOCITY THE
THE PARAMETER
PARAMETER
NORMALLY
NORMALLY USED.
USED.

• IT GIVES EQUAL AMPLITUDE WEIGHTING TO

ALL VIBRATION FREQUENCIES.

• MOST ROTATING MACHINES PRODUCE

FREQUENCIES BETWEEN 6OOCPM TO 120KCPM
WHERE VELOCITY IS THE MOST RESPONSIVE

• IT IS THE ONLY MEASUREMENT PARAMETER

WHERE THE OVERALL VIBRATION LEVEL CAN
BE APPLIED DIRECTLY TO A STANDARD OF
VIBRATION SEVERITY. IE:-WHEN THE
FREQUENCIES OF THE VIBRATION ARE
UNKNOWN.
 Overall Vibration
• Is a total summation of the amplitudes of all the
vibration frequencies at a point. There are two
types :-
 Analog Overall Level -
• Frequency range is limited only by the Transducer & Instrument
performance
• When available, use in preference to RSS to assess machinery
condition.
 Digital Overall Level -
• Usually uses the Root Sum Squared (RSS) Calculated over a user
defined frequency range.
• Does not see vibration above FMAX or below FMIN
• Comparing the Analog to Spectral RSS will reveal if
your chosen spectrum (0-FMAX ) is high enough to
see all necessary information
RMS (root-mean-square) of a sinusoidal vibration

Peak
Veff
vi
= 0.707 Peak

1
T = __
f

Where T = period of one cycle of the vibration

v =i instantaneous velocity
t = the variable time
Typical Spectrum
 Terminology
• Dominant peak : highest in the
spectrum

• Synchronous : 1X RPM

• Asynchronous or Non-synchronous :
not a whole (integer) multiplier of
RPM

CRITICAL in Rolling Element

Bearings
 Terminology
• Fundamental : the lowest frequency associated
to a problem or phenomenon

• Harmonic : orders of a fundamental (1x

fundamental, 2x, 3x, etc)

• Subsynchronous : BELOW 1X
 Severity Tables

Applicable to spectral peaks which are

considered normal (i.e. NOT defects)
 FOR
DISPLACEMENT
&
VELOCITY
FOR
ACCELERATION
Contours of Equal Severity
 
 COMPARISON
COMPARISONOF
OFVIBRATION
VIBRATIONDISPLACEMENT,
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY
VELOCITYAND
AND
ACCELERATION
ACCELERATION-- CONTOURS
CONTOURSOF
OFEQUAL
EQUAL SEVERITY
SEVERITY
F (cpm) D (um) V (mm/s) A (g)
60 100.00 0.314 0.0002
600 10.00 0.314 0.002
6,000 1.00 0.314 0.020
60,000 0.10 0.314 0.201
600,000 0.01 0.314 2.012

Displacement Force Indicator

10 um .20 g

Velocity
LOG Fatigue Indicator
AMPLITUDE .314 mm/s .314 mm/s
(um, mm/s, g)
.002 g .1 um

Acceleration
Stress Indicator

60 600 6K 60K 600K

LOG FREQUENCY (CPM)
 Parameter (Units) Review
• Velocity preferred
– linear severity over a wide frequency range
• 600 to 60 000 CPM

• Acceleration preferred for HIGH freq.

• Displacement gives a good measurement
for LOW frequency
PHASE

WHEN?
 WHAT IS PHASE ?.
• The angular reference --at a given
instance in time -- of a moving part--to a
fixed point.

• The angular reference--at a given

instance in time -- of two moving parts
to each other.
In-phase
900 Out-of-phase
1800 Out-of-phase
Simply
 METHODS OF OBTAINING A
PHASE READING

• STROBE LIGHT

• REFERENCE PICKUP
STROBE LIGHT
 OBTAINING PHASE
WITH A STROBE
 Totally un-damped- Real time display.
 No Reference Pickup required.
 Can positively identify the source of a
vibration.
 Poor in bright sunlight & slow speeds.
 Rotating parts must be visible
 Close access required.
 Needs accurately marked Angular Reference
REFERENCE PICKUP (REMOTE PHASE)
 OBTAINING PHASE
WITH A REFERENCE PICKUP
 No angular marking required.
 Phase readings at remote locations.
 Shafts can be totally enclosed.
 Good for low speeds (Not E/Mag PU)

 Digital readings not real time

 Pulse reference required on shaft.
 Reference pickup requires mounting.
 METHODS OF OBTAINING PHASE
REFERENCE PICKUPS
• PHOTOCELL REFLECTIVE TAPE
 BAD :- CLEAN AIR OPERATION ONLY
– GOOD :- LOW SPEED-EASY SET UP.
TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE
• FIBRE OPTIC REFLECTIVE TAPE
– SAME AS FOR PHOTOCELL BUT NOT TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE
• ELECTRO MAGNETIC CONDUCTIVE PROTRUSION OR RECESS
– GOOD:- ENCLOSED & OIL WASHED COMPONENTS
 BAD :- OUTPUT DEPENDENT ON SPEED & GAP
• NON CONTACT PICKUP CONDUCTIVE PROTRUSION OR RECESS
 REQUIRES SPECIAL MOUNTING BRACKETS AND POWER SUPPLY
• LASETACH ANY SIGNIFICANT CHANGE IN TEXTURE OR COLOUR
– GOOD :- CAN BE USED UP TO 15 METERS FROM TARGET
 BAD :- SAFETY (EARLIER TYPES-CLASS B LASER)
CLEAN AIR SPACE
 Phase Measurements

In addition to Phase measurements at IX reference

input, the analyser can easily display phase up to
10X reference input
 PHASE
• PHASE readings enable you to
differentiate between defects with similar
frequency characteristics i.e..
– Phase Direction - Relative between points.
– Phase Separation. - At one point.
– Phase Instability
– Phase With Respect to Amplitude &
Speed
– Phase With Respect to Time
 PHASE INSTABILITY
• Erratic :- Impact - Looseness
• Changing :- Resonance
• Changing between runs :- Components
slipping on initial torque. Loose objects
in hollow components. Plastic shafts etc..
• Swinging :- Phasing - Beating
• Rotating :- Slipping components
Severe phasing
 RECAP

VIBRATION
TECHNOLOGY
 Machines
Everywhere-
In the home -
Air Conditioners,
Washing machines,

At work -
Presses,
Motors,
Pumps
 When they breakdown -
I get annoyed because & I couldn't
get a good night’s sleep!
The one-man company goes bust
since he can’t produce his products
and the customers go elsewhere!
The large multi-nationals just put
in a new machine!
 Some of the
consequences :-
Annoyance!
Financial Disaster!
Personal Injury!
Loss of life!
Do you ever walk past a machine and put
your hand on the casing?
We do this to “Feel” if it is running the
way it normally should.
An inexperienced driver will know that
something is wrong when the steering
wheel begins to shake.
Therefore, it is natural for us to relate the
condition of our machines to the amount
of vibration that they are giving off.
 Subjective Experience
I THINK IT’S
MISALIGNED I DON’T THINK IT’S TOO
SEEMS BAD. LET’S
BAD! LEAVE IT ALONE
SHUT IT DOWN
 Objective Technology
The vibration
analysis says it’s
out of balance. That’s good!
At 7 mm/sec it’s We can
only slightly rough. continue
operations but
plan
maintenance.
 What is Vibration?
We can define vibration as -
The back and forth motion of a
machine, or one of it’s components,
from its normal position of rest.
This back and forth motion is called
an Oscillation.
Any motion that repeats itself after an
interval of time is called an oscillation.
VIBRATION DEFINITION
Vibration is simply a
motion back and forth
from a position of rest.

Upper limit

Neutral position

M Lower limit
WHY USE VIBRATION?.
All machines vibrate.
Developing problems are
usually accompanied by an
increase in vibration.
The vibration’s unique
characteristics will be
determined by the nature of the
developing fault.
 Causes of Vibration:
Vibrations are caused by forces that are
generated within the machinery. These forces
may be ones that:
Change in direction over time - rotating unbalance.
Change in amplitude, or intensity, over time -
unbalanced magnetic forces in induction motors.
Cause friction between rotating and stationary parts.
Cause impacts - gear tooth contacts - rolling elements
in bearings.
Cause randomly generated forces - flow turbulence.
 Common Causes of Vibration are:
Misalignment of couplings, bearings & gears.
Unbalance of rotating components.
Looseness of bolts, grouting or excessive clearance.
Deteriorating rolling elements in bearings.
Gear wear.
Rubbing.
Aerodynamic / Hydraulic Forces.
Electrical problems such as unbalance in motors.
Resonance.
Eccentricity of rotating components.
What Causes the Vibratory Condition
of a Machine to Deteriorate?
• Dynamic forces increase
– Wear, corrosion, or build up of deposits
increases imbalance
– Settling of foundations may increase
misalignment forces
• The stiffness of the machine reduces
– Loosening or stretching of mounting
bolts
– Broken weld
– Crack in the foundation
– Deterioration of grouting
Reasons to Minimize Vibration -
 Plant Reliability
– Reduction in Outage & Maintenance Cost
 More Productivity
Precision machine tools
– Quality products require
 Good dimensional tolerances
 Human Annoyance
– Residences
 Low vibration in heating, ventilation, air
conditioning. machinery, etc...
Maintenance Philosophies
 Breakdown Maintenance

 Preventative (Scheduled) Maintenance

 Predictive Maintenance
Breakdown Maintenance
No maintenance (Run to failure mode).
Results in lost production and/or poor
quality production.
Causes untimely failure.
Catastrophic failure may lead to
extensive damage (complete machine
replacement).
Safety related concerns.
Up to three times the cost.
Scheduled or Preventive Maintenance
Regularly stop the equipment and inspect for
defects, lubricate etc.
Advantages of periodic disassembly and inspection
– Lessens frequency of breakdown repairs
– Allows for scheduling parts, labour,
processes
Disadvantages
– Periodicdisassembly of every critical
machine (and non-critical) is expensive
and time consuming
– Period or interval is difficult to
determine
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE.
THE USE OF GRAPHIC TRENDS OF
SELECTED MEASUREMENT
PARAMETERS AGAINST KNOWN
ENGINEERING LIMITS FOR THE PURPOSE
OF:-
DETECTING, ANALYSING &
CORRECTING
MACHINERY DEFECTS,
BEFORE FAILURE OCCURS
Predictive Maintenance Advantages:
 Minimizes machine damage and allows
scheduling of downtime, labour,
materials
 Helps eliminate costly trial and error
approaches to solving problems
 Allows machines in good operating
condition to continue to run
 Eliminates unnecessary overhauls
 Improves safety and quality performance
Predictive Maintenance
Involves the trending and analysis of
machinery performance parameters.
Condition Monitoring
The assessment on a continuous or
periodic basis of the mechanical
condition of machinery, equipment and
systems from the observations and / or
recordings of selected measurement
parameters.
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS
• NOISE
• TEMPERATURE.
• PRESSURE.
• CURRENT FLOW.
• MOVEMENT:- EXPANSION - VIBRATION.
• INFRA RED :- THERMOGRAPHY.
• OIL CONDITION / CONTAMINATION
• WEAR ANALYSIS:- FEROGRAPHY.
SPECTROMETRIC OIL
ANALYSIS.
WHY DO WE WANT TO DO THIS?
 We want the machines to
run for as long as possible,
in their normal operating
conditions.
 We want as much warning
of impending failure as we
can possibly get, so that we
can avoid breakdowns.
MACHINE
MACHINE OPERATING
OPERATING CONDITIONS
CONDITIONS
Bathtub
Bathtub Curve
Curve

FAILURE

SHUT DOWN

OIL
DEBRIS
WARNING

RUNNING
RUNNING LEAD
LEAD
NORMAL
NORMAL OPERATIONS
OPERATIONS TIME
TIME
IN
IN
 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
An effective
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME (PMP)
consists of four logical steps-
•• DETECTION
DETECTION

•• ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS

•• CORRECTION
CORRECTION

•• VERIFICATION
VERIFICATION
 The
The Four
Four Logical
Logical Steps
Steps of
of an
an Effective
Effective
Predictive
Predictive Maintenance
Maintenance Program.
Program.
Detection
Trending a machines vibration level to detect and quantify any
changes from the norm.
Analysis
When a significant change is detected the vibration is analyzed
to determine the nature of the problem
Correction .
The advanced warning provided by the detection and analysis
enables corrective action to be prepared and scheduled.
Verification.
After correction new readings are obtained to ensure that all
defects have been eliminated and to establish new baseline
characteristics.
 Fifth Stage
Most companies now add a fifth stage
to their Predictive Maintenance
Program
Root Cause Analysis
When the defect is confirmed, the fault
and/or defective components are
analyzed to prevent re-occurrence of
the problem.