Introduction to System Concepts

What is System?
The term System is derived from the greek
word systema, which means an organized
relationship among functioning units or
components.
A system is collection of Interdependent,
Interrelated, and Interacting components/
Elements.
 What a system possess?
• A system exists because it is designed to achieve one
or more objectives. A system has:
-an hierarchy of sub-systems and super systems
within itself.
-boundary: Rigid or Flexible.
-Synergy/ property of Wholism.
-Inherent regulatory mechanism.
-process of Input Through Output
 System Concepts
The study of systems concepts, has three basic
implication :
• A system must be designed to achieve a
predetermined objective.
• Interrelationships and interdependence must exits
among the components.
• The objective of the organization as a whole have a
higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems.
 Characteristics of a system
• Organization: It implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components
that helps to achieve objectives.
• Interaction: It refers to the manner in which each component functions with other
components of the system.
• Interdependence: It means that parts of the organization or computer system
depend on one another. They are coordinated and linked together according to a
plan. One subsystem depends on the output of another subsystem for proper
functioning.
• Integration: It refers to the wholism of systems. It is concerned with how a system
is tied together.
• Central objective: A system should have a central objective. Objectives may be
real or stated. Although a stated objective may be the real objective, it is not
uncommon for an organization to state one objective and operate to achieve
another. The important point is that users must know the central objective of a
computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.
 Elements of a system
• Outputs and inputs
• Processor‘s
• Control
• Feedback
• Environment
• Boundaries and
interface
 Elements of a system
• Outputs and inputs: A major objective of a system is to produce an
output that has value to its user. In order to get a good output, inputs
to system must be appropriate. It is important to point out here that
determining the output is a first step in specifying the nature,
amount and regularity of the input needed to operate a system.
• Processors: It is the element of a system that involves the actual
transformation of input into output. It is the operational component
of a system. Processors may modify the input totally or partially,
depending on the specifications of the output. In some cases, input
is also modified to enable the processor to handle the
transformation.
• Control: The control elements guide the system. It is the decision-
making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing
input, processing, and output.
 Elements of a system
• Feedback: Feedback measures output against a standard in some form
of cybernetic procedure that includes communication and control.
Feedback may be positive or negative, routine or informational.
Positive feedback reinforces the performance of the system. It is
routine in nature. Negative feedback generally provides the controller
with information for action.
• Environment: The environment is the “supra-system” within which
an organization operates. It is the source of external elements that
impinge on the system. In fact, it often determines how a system
must function.
• Boundaries and Interfaces: A system should be defined by its
boundaries- the limits that identify its components, processes, and
interrelationships when it interfaces with another system.
 Types of systems

• Open or Closed systems

• Physical or Abstract systems
• Deterministic or Probabilistic Systems
• Informal information system or Formal
information systems
• Computer Based Information Systems
 Open or Closed System
• Open System: The system which interacts with the
environment is known as an Open system. These system
change their organization in response to the changing
environment.
• example:Organizationalsystem.

Closed System: A system which doesn't interact with the

outside environment is known as the closed system. All the
operation are controlled automatically by the system itself.
• example: Chemical reaction in the sealed tube.
 Physical and Abstract System
• Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation.
• Static systems are those systems in which each entity has its own physical
existence, which can be seen, touched and counted. For example, the physical
parts of the computer center are the CPU, Printer, Scanner that facilitate the
operation of the computer. They can be seen and counted.
In contrary, Dynamic system responds to various demands made by the user.
Data, program, output and specification changes as the user demands.

• Abstract system are conceptual and non-physical entities. Or in other words,

Abstract systems are used for describing data and data relationships in
accordance with concept. They may be straight forward as formula of relationship
among the set of variables. The main objective of abstract model is that it seems
to be easier for the analyst to visualize relationship among the system under study
and point out the components and interrelationship among them.
 Deterministic or Probabilistic Systems
• Deterministic System: A system which acts in a
predictable manner where stepwise execution and the
output is already known is called as Deterministic
System.
example: Calculation system
• Probabilistic System: The system which acts in a
unpredictable manner and where the outcome is not
predictable is known as a Probabilistic system. There is
always a some degree of error present in such system.
example: Weather forecasting.
 Formal Information System
• Based on organization represented by the organization chart
• Map the positions and their authority relationships
• Concerned with the pattern of authority, communication and
work flow
• Information is spread in form of instructions, memos and
report from top management to the intended user
• Structure also allows feedback
• Policies specifies what an organization should do
• Policies translated into directives, rules and regulations and
transmitted to lower level management for implementation
• Output represents employee performance
 Informal Information Systems
• Employee based system developed to personnel need
• Help to solve work related problems
• Funnel information upward through indirect channel
• Works within the framework of the business and its stated
policies
• Analyst should have a knowledge of chain of command,
power-authority influence network, how decision are made
and inner working of the employee-based system
• Employee cooperation and participation is crucial
 Software
Software is
• Set of instructions (computer programs) that
when executed provide desired function and
performance,
• Set of data structures that enable the programs
to adequately manipulate information,
• Set of documents that describe the operation
and use of the programs.
 Characteristics of Software
• Software is developed rather then manufactured in
classical serve.
• Software doesn’t wear out.
• Most Software continues to be custom built, industry
is moving towered components based assembly.
 Software Types
• System software. System software is a collection of programs written
to service other programs. e.g., compilers, editors, and file
management utilities.
• Real-time software. Software that monitors/analyzes/controls real-
world events as they occur is called real time.
• Business software. Business information processing is the largest
single software application area. e.g., payroll, accounts
receivable/payable, inventory)
• Engineering and scientific software. Engineering and scientific
software have been characterized by "number crunching"
algorithms. Applications range from astronomy to volcanology, from
automotive stress analysis to space shuttle orbital dynamics, and
from molecular biology to automated manufacturing.
 Software Types
• Embedded software. Embedded software resides in read-only
memory and is used to control products and systems for the
consumer and industrial markets. Embedded software can perform
very limited and esoteric functions (e.g., keypad control for a
microwave oven) or provide significant function and control
capability e.g., digital functions in an automobile such as fuel
control, dashboard displays, and braking systems).
• Personal computer software. The personal computer software
market has burgeoned over the past two decades. Word
processing, spreadsheets, computer graphics, multimedia,
entertainment, database management, personal and business
financial applications, external network, and database access are
only a few of hundreds of applications.
 Software Engineering
“The application of a systematic, disciplined
quantifiable approach to the development,
operation, and maintenance of software;
that is, the application of engineering to
software.”
Software Engineering- A Layered Technology

Tools

Methods

Process

Quality Focus
 Quality Focus Layer
• Software engineering must rest on an
organizational commitment to quality.
• Total quality management foster a continuous
process improvement culture, and this culture
ultimately leads to the development of
increasingly more mature approaches to
software engineering.
• The bedrock that supports software
engineering is a quality focus.
 Process Layer
• The foundation for software engineering is the process
layer.
• Software engineering process is the glue that holds the
technology layers together and enables rational and timely
development of computer software.
• Process defines a framework for a set of key process areas
(KPAs) that must be established for effective delivery of
software engineering technology.
• The key process areas form the basis for management
control of software projects and establish the context in
which technical methods are applied.
 Methods Layer
• Software engineering methods provide the
technical how-to's for building software.
• Methods encompass a broad array of tasks
that include requirements analysis, design,
program construction, testing, and support.
• Software engineering methods rely on a set of
basic principles that govern each area of the
technology and include modelling activities
and other descriptive techniques.
 Tools Layer
• Software engineering tools provide automated
or semi-automated support for the process
and the methods.
• When tools are integrated so that information
created by one tool can be used by another, a
system for the support of software
development, called computer-aided software
engineering, is established.
 Software Quality Factors
• Correctness: A software system is expected to meets the explicitly
specified functional requirements and the implicitly expected non-
functional requirements.
If a software system satisfies all the functional requirements, the
system is said to be correct.
• Reliability: Customers may still consider an incorrect system to be
reliable if the failure rate is very small and it does not adversely
affect their mission objectives.
Reliability is a customer perception, and an incorrect software can
still be considered to be reliable.
• Efficiency: Efficiency concerns to what extent a software system
utilizes resources, such as computing power, memory, disk space,
communication bandwidth, and energy.
• Integrity: A system’s integrity refers to its ability to withstand attacks to its security.
In other words, integrity refers to the extent to which access to software or data by
unauthorized persons or programs can be controlled.
• Usability: A software is considered to be usable if human users find it easy to use.
Without a good user interface a software system may fizzle out even if it possesses
many desired qualities.
• Maintainability: Maintenance refers to the upkeep of products in response to
deterioration of their components due to continuous use of the products.
Maintenance refers to how easily and inexpensively the maintenance tasks can be
performed.
For software products, there are three categories of maintenance activities :
corrective, adaptive and perfective maintenance.
• Interoperability : Interoperability means whether or not the output of one system is
acceptable as input to another system, it is likely that the two systems run on
different computers interconnected by a network.
An example of interoperability is the ability to roam from one cellular phone
network in one country to another cellular network in another country.
• Testability: Testability means the ability to verify requirements. At
every stage of software development, it is necessary to consider
the testability aspect of a product.
To make a product testable, designers may have to instrument a
design with functionalities not available to the customer.
• Flexibility: Flexibility is reflected in the cost of modifying an
operational system.
In order to measure the flexibility of a system, one has to find an
answer to the question: How easily can one add a new feature to a
system.
• Portability: Portability of a software system refers to how easily it
can be adapted to run in a different execution environment.
Portability gives customers an option to easily move from one
execution environment to another to best utilize emerging
technologies in furthering their business.
• Reusability: Reusability means if a significant portion of one
product can be reused, maybe with minor modifications, in
another product.
Reusability saves the cost and time to develop and test the
component being reused.
 SDLC

Stage Key Question Result

1 Recognition of Need :- What is the Problem?  Statement of scope & objective
(aim)
 Preliminary Survey  Performance criteria.

 Investigation

2 Feasibility Study :- Is the problem worth New Scope

solving? New Objective
 Evaluation of existing
Cost Benefit analysis
system.
Its technical behavior and stability.
 Analysis of alternative
system.

 Cost estimates.

3 Analysis :- What must be done to Logical model of system.

solve a problem ? eg. data dictionary & data flow
 Detailed evaluation of diagram.
present system. What are the facts ?

 Data collection.
 Stage Key Question Result
4 Design :- How must the problem  Implementation
be solved ? specification / schedule.
 General specification and  Final Cost / Benefit
 Detailed specification. analysis.

5 Coding :-  Approval of system by

user programs.
 Programming languages,
----
 Platform,
 Technology
6 Testing :- How well the system  Secured, actual, formal
is Ready? system.
 Unit Testing
 Integration Testing.
 Acceptance Testing
7 Implementation & Maintenance :- What is the actual  User manual, user friendly
operation ? documentation.
 User requirements met.
 User training & file / system
conversion