Flow Nets

and
Groundwater flow
pattern
Other flow nets
Flow Net Theory
 Flow Net Theory
1. Streamlines  and Equip. lines  are .
2. Streamlines  are parallel to no flow
boundaries.
3. Grids are curvilinear squares, where diagonals
cross at right angles.
4. Each stream tube carries the same flow.
Flow Net in Isotropic Soil
Portion of a flow net is shown below

Stre
am t
ube


 Flow Net in Isotropic Soil
• The equation for flow nets originates from
Darcy’s Law.

• Flow Net solution is equivalent to solving the

governing equations of flow for a uniform
isotropic aquifer with well-defined boundary
conditions.
 Flow Net in Isotropic Soil
• Flow through a channel between
equipotential lines 1 and 2 per unit width
is: ∆q =
K(dm x 1)(∆h1/dl)

n

m 
q 

q h1
h2
dm
dl
 Flow Net in Isotropic Soil
• Flow through equipotential lines 2 and 3 is:

∆q = K(dm x 1)(∆h2/dl)
• The flow net has square grids, so the head drop is
the same in each potential drop: ∆h1 = ∆h2
• If there are nd such drops, then:
∆h = (H/n)
where, H is the total head loss between the first and
last equipotential lines.
 Flow Net in Isotropic Soil
• Substitution yields:

– ∆q = K(dm x dl)(H/n)

• This equation is for one flow channel. If there are

m such channels in the net, then total flow per unit
width is:

– q = (m/n)K(dm/dl)H
 Flow Net in Isotropic Soil
• Since the flow net is drawn with squares, then dm 
dl, and:

q = (m/n)KH [L2T-1]

where:
– q = rate of flow or seepage per unit width
– m= number of flow channels
– n= number of equipotential drops
– h = total head loss in flow system
– K = hydraulic conductivity
 Drawing Method:
1. Draw to a convenient scale the cross sections of
the structure, water elevations, and aquifer
profiles.

2. Establish boundary conditions and draw one or

two flow lines  and equipotential lines  near
the boundaries.
 Method:
3. Sketch intermediate flow lines and equipotential lines by
smooth curves adhering to right-angle intersections and
square grids. Where flow direction is a straight line, flow
lines are an equal distance apart and parallel.

4. Continue sketching until a problem develops. Each

problem will indicate changes to be made in the entire
net. Successive trials will result in a reasonably
consistent flow net.
 Method:
5. In most cases, 5 to 10 flow lines are usually
sufficient. Depending on the no. of flow lines
selected, the number of equipotential lines will
automatically be fixed by geometry and grid
layout.

6. Equivalent to solving the governing equations

of GW flow in 2-dimensions.
Seepage Under Dams
Flow nets for seepage
through earthen dams
Seepage under
concrete dams
Uses boundary
conditions (L & R)
Requires curvilinear
square grids for
solution
Two Layer Flow System with
Sand Below

Ku / Kl = 1 / 50
 Two Layer Flow System with Tight Silt
Below

Flow nets for seepage from one side of a channel through two different anisotropic
two-layer systems. (a) Ku / Kl = 1/50. (b) Ku / Kl = 50. Source: Todd & Bear, 1961.
Effects of Boundary Condition on
Shape of Flow Nets
 Radial Flow:

Contour map of the piezometric surface near Savannah, Georgia, 1957,

showing closed contours resulting from heavy local groundwater pumping
(after USGS Water-Supply Paper 1611).
Flow Net in a Corner:

Streamlines 
are at right
angles to
equipotential
 lines
 Flow Nets: an example
• A dam is constructed on a permeable stratum
underlain by an impermeable rock. A row of sheet
pile is installed at the upstream face. If the
permeable soil has a hydraulic conductivity of 150
ft/day, determine the rate of flow or seepage under
the dam.
 Flow Nets: an example
Pos it io n: A B C D E F G H I J
Dist a nc e 0 3 22 3 7 .5 50 6 2 .5 75 86 94 100
fro m
front t o e
( ft)
n 1 6 .5 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. 2

The flow net is drawn with: m = 5 n = 17

 Flow Nets: the solution
• Solve for the flow per unit width:

q = (m/n) K h

= (5/17)(150)(35)

= 1544 ft3/day per ft

 Flow Nets: An Example
• There is an earthen dam 13 meters across and 7.5
meters high.The Impounded water is 6.2 meters
deep, while the tailwater is 2.2 meters deep. The
dam is 72 meters long. If the hydraulic
conductivity is 6.1 x 10-4 centimeter per second,
what is the seepage through the dam if n = 21

K = 6.1 x 10-4cm/sec
= 0.527 m/day
 Flow Nets: the solution
• From the flow net, the total head loss, H, is 6.2 -
2.2 = 4.0 meters.
• There are 6 flow channels (m) and 21 head drops
along each flow path (n):
• Q = (KmH/n) x dam length

= (0.527 m/day x 6 x 4m / 21)

x (dam length)
= 0.60 m3/day per m of dam
= 43.4 m3/day for the entire 72-meter
length of the dam
Construction of flow nets
Stream line and potential
Rules of flownet construction
Rules
Flownets
Flownets
Flownet
Flownet
Flownet
Flownet
Illustrated examples of flows and
flownets
Loosing and gaining streams
Gaining stream
Loosing stream
Spring occurrence
Depressed water table
Flow in a meandering stream
course
Complex flow
Stream – groundwater interaction
Flow nets
Flow net
Flow nets
From rain to stream
Regional and local flow
Flow in a mountain
Flow in coastal plains
Flow in glacial terrain
Flow close to surface
Flow in karast area
Movement from land to ocean
Local and regional flow
Flow systems
Seepage
Flow in cross-section
Recharge and water table
Groundwater and river
Groundwater and river
River -groundwater
Wetland-groundwater
Lake-groundwater
Groundwater-stream
Stream bed slope and groundwater
Groundwater - pumping
Groundwater flow path
Vertical groundwater flow