METALLIZATIO

N
Presented by:
CERVANTES, GISON, PORRAS, & YANSON
INTRODUCTION
• Fabrication of circuits is divided into two major
segments:
FEOL (Front End Of Line)
Fabrication of active and passive components on wafer surface.

BEOL (Front End Of Line)

Metal system connecting devices and layers on the chip.

In this chapter, the materials, specifications, and methods used

to complete the metallization segment are presented along with
other uses of metals in chip manufacturing.
EVOLUTION OF METALLIZATION TECHNIQUES
Metal deposition techniques evolved in response to new
circuit requirements and materials.

Vacuum Evaporation Era (Pre-1970s)

- Mainly utilized for aluminum, gold, and fuse metals, especially for PROM devices.
Introduction of Sputtering (Mid-1970s)
- Multilayer metal systems and the need for better step
coverage prompted the adoption of sputtering.
Emergence of CVD Technique
- Multilayer metal systems and the need for better step
coverage prompted the adoption of sputtering.
Copper Integration
Advancements in Multilayer Systems
SINGLE LAYER
METAL SYSTEMS
In the MSI era, metallization was
relatively straightforward, requiring
only a single-level metal process.
• Creation of Contact Holes: Photomasking
step called contact masking is used for this
purpose.
• Deposition of Conducting Metal: Thin
layer (about 0.5 μm) of conducting metal
deposited over the entire wafer.
• Patterning and Etching
• Alloying: Heat-treatment step performed
after to ensure good electrical contact
between the metal and wafer surface.
Regardless of the structure, a metal system must meet the
following criteria:
• Good current-carrying • Long-term Stability
capability
• Good adhesion • Uniform Grain Structure
• Ease of patterning
• Good electrical contact
• High Purity
• Corrossion Resistance
• Uniform Deposition in Void and
Hillock-Free Films
 MULTILEVEL METAL
SCHEMES

Two-metal structure

Multi-level metal structure

CONDUCTOR
MATERIALS
• Aluminum
• Aluminum-Silicon Alloys
• Aluminum-Copper Alloys
• Barrier Metals
• Refractory Metals and Silicides
ALUMINUM
There are three primary materials used for the metal
interconnection layers ;

Copper

Pure Aluminum Gold

 ALUMINUM-SILICON ALLOYS

Challenges caused by pure aluminum leads:

• Pure aluminum leads encounter challenges
with shallow junctions on the wafer surface.
• Eutectic formation, termed "spiking," can
occur at temperatures around 577°C.
Solutions:
• Barrier Metals
• Aluminum Silicon Alloys

Euclectic alloying of aluminum and silicon contacts.

ALUMINUM-COPPER
ALLOYS
Electromigration in aluminum, a posing
challenge. Prevention Techniques:
• Deposition of aluminum-copper or
aluminum-titanium alloys to
prevent or moderate
electromigration.
• Aluminum alloys containing
copper and silicon are often used to
resolve both alloying and
electromigration issues.
BARRIER METALS
A method of preventing the eutectic alloying of silicon and aluminum
metallization is by using a barrier layer, where both titanium-tungsten (TiW) and
titanium nitride (TiN) layers are used.

TiW

TiN
The limitations of electromigration and eutectic
alloying have been made manageable by
aluminum alloys and barrier metals, contact
resistance may prove to be the final limit on
aluminum metallization.
Refractory metals and their silicides offer lower
contact resistance.

•The refractory metals of interest are: Titanium

(Ti), Tungsten (W), Tantalum (Ta), and
Molybdenum (Mo).
•Their silicides form when they are alloyed on a
silicon surface (WSi2 , TaSi2 , MoSi2 , and
TiSi2 ).

REFRACTOR
Y METALS
AND
SILICIDES
•Tungsten is favored for its superior step
coverage, lowered electrical resistance,

PLUGS
resistance to electromigration, and high-
temperature tolerance.

•refractory metals is used to fill •The vias are filled by either

of via holes in multilevel metal selective tungsten deposition
structures. The process is called through surface holes onto the
plug filling, and the filled via is first layer metal or by, the
called a plug. standard, blanket CVD
techniques.
 SPUTTER
DEPOSITIO
N
•The historic metal deposition •Its limitations were met by the •Sputter deposition is a physical vapor
process was vacuum introduction of aluminum alloys deposition (PVD) process
evaporation. It took place in a and step coverage into high aspect •Inside the vacuum chamber is a solid slab,
stainless steel bell jar with via holes. Different metals called a target which is electrically grounded,
wafers held in rotating domes evaporate at different rates that of the desired film material to be deposited.
over a metal source heated to made depositing uniform alloys •Argon gas is introduced into the chamber and
evaporation levels by an electron difficult. Sputter deposition is ionized to a positive charge.
stream. (sputtering) solved these problems •The positively charged argon atoms are
and is the standard metal-deposition attracted to the grounded target and accelerate
method. toward it.
 SPUTTER
DEPOSITIO
N
•During the acceleration, they
gain momentum, which is force,
and strike the target. At the
target, a phenomenon called
momentum transfer takes place.

•This is a physical process. Literally, the argon

atoms “knock off” atoms and molecules from the
target, sending them into the chamber.
•This is the sputtering activity.
•The sputtered atoms or molecules scatter in the
chamber with some coming to rest on the wafer.
•Conservation of target material composition,
which is the deposition of alloys and dialectrics.

SPUTTERING >
•Improve step coverage.
•Planar source, where material is being sputtered
from every point on the target, with material

VACUUM
arriving at the wafer holder with a wide range of
angles to coat the wafer surface.

•Improved Adhesion of the sputtered film to the wafer surface

•The higher energy of the arriving atoms makes for a better adhesion, and the
plasma environment inside the chamber has a “scrubbing” action of the wafer
surface that enhances adhesion.
•Adhesion and surface cleanliness can be increased by grounding the wafer
holder and sputtering the wafer surface for a brief time prior to the deposition.
•Another technique to improve step coverage and uniform film formation in
deep holes is a collimated beam.

SPUTTERIN
G prevent unwanted oxidation
•The greatest contribution of sputtering
is the control of film characteristics
available by the balancing of the
sputtering parameters of pressure,
deposition rate, and target material.
Sandwiches of material can be sputtered
in one process with multiple target
arrangements.
•Clean and dry argon (or
neon) is required to maintain
film composition
characteristics, and low
moisture is required to
of the deposited film. The
chamber is loaded with the
wafers, and the pressure is
reduced by pumps (pumped
down) to the 1 × 10 –9 -torr
range.
•The argon is introduced and
ionized. Control of the argon
amount entering the chamber
is critical due to its effect of
raising the pressure in the
chamber. With the argon and
sputtered material in the
chamber, the pressure rises
to a level of about 10 –3 torr.
Chamber pressure is a
critical parameter in the
deposition rate of the system.
 COPPER DUAL-
DAMASCENE
PROCESS
•In the 1990s, IBM introduced the copper-based damascene
process to replace aluminum metallization. One of the
attractions of copper metallization is that copper can be the
plug material, creating a monometal system that minimizes
intermetal resistances.

•Aluminum metallization ran into a performance barrier as

circuits reached 100- MHz speeds. Signals must move fast
enough through the metal system to prevent processing
delays. Also, longer leads and smaller cross-sections
required for larger chips increase the resistance of the metal
wiring system. As the number of contact holes increases,
the small contract resistance between aluminum and silicon
surfaces adds up to become significant.
 LOW-K ••Silicon dioxide has a dielectric constant (k) in the

DIELECTRIC
3.9 range. Successful circuits will require k values
dropping to the 1.5 to 2.0 range, according the SIA
International Technology Roadmap for
MATERIALS Semiconductors. In addition to the dielectric
property the IMD must have a number of chemical
and mechanical properties.
•Copper is resistant to electromigration and can
be deposited at low temperatures. It also can be
used as a plug material. Deposition can be by
CVD, sputtering, electroless plating, and
electrolytic plating. Drawbacks, besides lack of
a learning curve, include etching problems,
vulnerability to scratching, corrosion, and the
requirement of barrier metals to keep the
copper out of the silicon.
 LOW-K
DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
•They include thermal stability
(subsequent metal processes can
take an initial film through a number
of heat steps up to the 450°C), good
etch selectivity, being pinhole free,
enough flexibility to withstand on
chip stresses, and compatibility with
the other processes.
 COPPER DUAL-
DAMASCENE
PROCESS
a technique used in semiconductor
manufacturing to create copper
interconnects, which are crucial for
connecting various components on a chip.
This process is employed in the fabrication
of integrated circuits (ICs) and is
particularly significant in advanced
microprocessor manufacturing.
 BARRIER OR LINER
PROCESSING
barrier or liner processing refers to the
deposition of a thin layer of material, typically
a metal or metal compound, onto the surface of
a substrate before depositing another material
on top. This additional layer serves several
purposes, including preventing material
diffusion, enhancing adhesion, and improving
the electrical properties of subsequent layers.
 SEED DEPOSITION

the process of depositing a thin layer of

material, known as a "seed layer," onto a
substrate surface before subsequent deposition
steps. This seed layer serves as a foundation
for the growth of additional materials in
subsequent process steps.
SEED DEPOSITION IS
USED IN THESE
PROCESSES
 ELECTROCHEMICAL
PLATING
also known as electroplating or
electrodeposition, is a process used in
semiconductor manufacturing and various
other industries to deposit a thin layer of metal
or other materials onto a substrate surface. This
deposition is achieved through the use of an
electric current to drive the transfer of metal
ions from a solution onto the substrate, where
they form a solid metal layer.
 CHEMICAL MECHANICAL
PROCESSING
a semiconductor fabrication process used
primarily for planarizing or smoothing the
surfaces of semiconductor wafers. It involves a
combination of chemical and mechanical
forces to remove material from the surface in a
controlled manner.
 CVD
DOPED SILICONE
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) of doped
silicon involves the deposition of a thin film of
silicon onto a substrate with controlled doping
using chemical vapor deposition techniques.
Doping refers to the intentional introduction of
impurities into the silicon crystal lattice to
modify its electrical properties.
 CVD
REFRATORY DEPOSITION
involves depositing thin films of refractory
metals or compounds onto substrates using
chemical reactions in the vapor phase.
Refractory materials are those with high
melting points and are resistant to heat, wear,
and corrosion. These materials find
applications in various industries, including
aerospace, electronics, and energy.
 DOPED
SILICON

PURPOSE:
To increase its conductivity.

PHOSPHORUS:
High solid solubility in silicon
TYPES Results in the
lowest film-sheet
Diffusion resistivity

The lower the temperature, the

Ion Implantation greater the amount of dopant
trapped in the polygrain structure,
where it is unavailable for
conduction.

Has the lowest

dopant carrier
In situ mobility due to
grain-boundary
trapping.
 CVD
REFRACTOR
Y
DEPOSITION
Offers the advantages of not
requiring expensive and
maintenance-intensive high-
vacuum pumps, has good
conformal step coverage, and high
production rates.
 TUNGSTEN

Used in a variety of structures,

including contact barriers,
MOS-gate interconnects, and
via plugs.
 SUBSTRATE
REDUCTION

Tungsten can also be deposited

selectively over aluminum and
other materials from WF6. The
processes are called substrate
reduction. Tungsten is also
deposited from WF6 by hydrogen
reduction; the reaction is:
 THE DIELECTRIC LAYER
IS RELATIVELY THICK.

PROBLEMS

THE VIA HOLES HAVE TO BE

RELATIVELY NARROW (HIGH-
ASPECT RATIO)
 RESULT

These two factors make for

a difficult continuous metal
deposition to fill the vias
without thinning of the
metal in the via.
MOS GATE AND
CAPACITOR
ELECTRODES
CAPACITOR

These devices require two

conductive layers, called
electrodes, separated by a
dielectric.

TRANSISTOR
MOS transistors are a capacitor
structure, and the top electrode, called
a gate, is a critical structure in MOS
circuits.
 BACKSIDE
METALLIZATI
ON
The metal functions as a
thermal interconnection
layer or bonding in
certain packaging
processes. An array of
metals are used including
gold, platinum, titanium,
and coppe
VACUUM
SYSTEM
S
 EVOLUTION OF
VACUUM
PROCESSES
Initially, only two processes used
vacuum: aluminum evaporation and
gold backside. Now, about a quarter
of all processes require vacuum or
low pressure.
 APPLICATIONS
Vacuum is essential for
lithography, etching, ion
implantation, sputtering,
LPCVD, PECVD, and rapid
thermal processing. Automated
processing also utilizes low-
pressure environments.
 BENEFITS OF
VACUUM
It provides a contaminant-free
environment and increases the
mean free path for atoms and
molecules, resulting in uniform
and controllable films.
 VACUUM
RANGES AND
PUMPS
LPCVD operates at medium vacuum range (down to (10^{-3}) torr), while
other processes use high to ultrahigh ranges (down to (10^{-9}) torr).
Mechanical pumps are used for roughing, and turbomolecular pumps are
preferred for high-vacuum applications
DRY
MECHANICAL
Dry pumps are based on a “roots”
design. These are screw or claw
designs that mechanically “grab”
the gases reducing pressure in the
process chamber before the hi-vac
pump takes over.
TURBOMOLECUL
AR HI-VAC PUMPS
Turbomolecular pumps are similar
in design to a jet turbine engine. A
series of blades with openings are
mounted and rotated at very high
speeds
(24,000 to 36,000 rpm) 17
on a central shaft.
TURBOMOLECUL
AR HI-VAC PUMPS
Gas molecules in a chamber collide
with rotating blades, gaining
downward momentum. This
momentum transfer repeats with
subsequent blades, resulting in gas
removal from the chamber.
 ADVANTAGES

Turbomolecular pumps are lack of

backstreaming from oils, no need
to recharge, high reliability, and
pressure reduction into the high
vacuum range.
 DISADVANTAGES

Slower pumping speed compared

to oil diffusion and cryogenic
pumps and vibration and wear due
to the high rotational speeds.
 DRAG PUMP

An addition to turbo pumps.

 COMBINATION
PUMPS
Can exhaust at high pressures. Use of
turbo pumps with
corrosive gas processes requires
coating the rotors and stators and/or
heating the
pump to keep the gases from forming
solid particles that deposit on the pump
parts.
Lars Peeters Howard Ong Avery Davis Drew Feig
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