Algorithms and Tracetables

Types of Program Errors

As programs are written by humans, they may contain errors. There are
several different types of error.
A SYNTAX ERROR is where a program statement doesn’t obey the rules
of the programming language. A program cannot be translated if it
contains syntax errors.
A LOGIC ERROR is where the program doesn’t do what the programmer
wanted it to do. Logic errors are found when a program is being run. (-
and through testing, such errors can be hidden and only found in odd
circumstances making then dangerous. As such robust testing is always
needed to make sure programs are safe.)
Handling Syntax Errors
When a program is being compiled, if any syntax errors are found no
translated program is produced. Instead, a list of all the errors in the
whole program is produced. The programmer corrects these errors and
recompiles the program.

When a program is being interpreted, the interpreter performs the

actions specified by each statement until a syntax error is found. The
programmer is then alerted to the place in the program where the error
was found. The error is corrected by the programmer and the
interpretation continues until the next error is found or the task is
completed.
Handling Logic Errors and Trace Tables

When a program is being run, if it doesn’t do what it should do having

passed there is a logic error.
These can be found by tracing what the program does and using test
data with expected results.
A TRACE TABLE can be used to record the results from each step in an
algorithm; it is used to record the value of an item (variable) each time
that it changes.
This manual exercise is called a DRY RUN.
A trace table is set up with a column for each variable and a column for
any output.
Test data is then used to dry run the flowchart
and record the results on a trace table.
TRACE TABLES
Test data: 9, 7, 3, 12, 6, 4, 15, 2, 8, 5

It can be seen from the output that the algorithm selects the largest and the
smallest numbers from a list of 10 positive numbers. The same trace table
could have been used if the algorithm had been shown using pseudocode.
and record the results on a trace table.
Test data: 9, 7, 3, 12, 6, 4, 15, 2, 8, 5
TRACE TABLES
Test data is then used to dry run the flowchart

It can be seen from the output that the algorithm selects the largest and the
smallest numbers from a list of 10 positive numbers. The same trace table
could have been used if the algorithm had been shown using pseudocode.
Write out the Pseudo code , Draw and use the trace table below
and the test data 4, 8, 19, 17, 3, 11, 6, 1, 13, 9 to record a dry run
of the pseudo code. TASK
 TASK
Use a trace table and the test data 400, 800, 190, 170, 300, 110, 600, 150,
130, 900 to record another dry run of the pseudocode or flowchart.
Dealing with errors
Use a trace table and some negative test data to record another dry run
of the pseudocode or flowchart.
What error have you found?

Redraw algorithm with your correction.

 Possible Improvement
Error found?
The algorithm only works for numbers between 0
and 100;
Redraw and improve the algorithm.
Could have the one on the left.
• This algorithm is very similar and works for a
much larger range of numbers but it still does
not work for every set of numbers. In order to do
this the algorithm needs to be rewritten to allow
the largest and smallest numbers to be tested
against numbers that appear in the list.
• (see next slide)
 A Better Algorithm
Change the pseudocode so it works
for every set of numbers like this
flowchart
Stages in producing an Algorithm
• 1 Make sure that the problem is clearly specified.
• 2 Break the problem down into sub-problems; if it is complex, you may want to consider writing an
algorithm for each sub-problem. Most problems, even the simplest ones can be divided into:
• set up
• input
• processing
• output of results
• 3 Decide on how any data is to be obtained and stored, what is going to happen to the data and how
any results are going to be displayed.
• 4 Decide on how you are going to construct your algorithm, using a flowchart or pseudocode.
• 5 Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be easily read and understood by someone else.
This involves setting it out clearly and using meaningful names for any data stores. The algorithms
that you have looked at so far in this chapter were not designed with readability in mind because you
needed to work out what the problem being solved was.
• 6 Use several sets of test data (normal, abnormal and boundary) and trace tables to find any errors.
• 7 If any errors are found, repeat the process until you think that your algorithm works perfectly.
A More Ideal Algorithm
Have a look at a more readable
flowchart showing the algorithm
to select the largest and smallest
numbers from a list of 10
numbers.
The effectiveness of a solution

There are many different solutions to the same problem. In order to

consider the effectiveness of a given solution ask the following
questions.
• 1 Does the solution work for all sets of data?
• 2 Does the solution have any unnecessary processes that are never
used?
• 3 Are any actions repeated more often than necessary?
• 4 Can the solution be simplified and still work as well?