Somali national university

 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
 GROUP FIVE
 Members of this group
1. Axmed cabdulaahi qaasim
2. Abdinuur cali xuseen
3. Farxaan xuseen maxamed
4. Saciid cabdinuur xasan
5. Faysal cabdi qaasim
6. Abdulaahi maxamed cali
7. Muniiro maxamed cabdulaahi
8. Faadumo xuseen xasan
9. Iqro maxamed aadan
10. Sihaam maxamed ibraahim
 Homeostasis
Main contents
Homeostasis
The Structure of the kidney
 control of water content
The control of blood glucose
Homeostasis in plants
 Homeostasis
homeostasis: the maintenance of a relatively constant internal
environment for the cells within the body.
 Some of the physiological factors controlled in homeostasis in
mammals are
 core body temperature
 metabolic wastes, particularly carbon dioxide and urea
 blood pH
 blood glucose concentration
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 water potential of the blood
 the concentrations in the blood of the respiratory gases, oxygen and
carbon dioxide
 Homeostatic control
 HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOP

Most control mechanisms in living

organisms use a negative feedback
control loop to maintain homeostatic
balance. This involves a receptor
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negative feedback: a process in which a change in some parameter
(e.g. blood glucose concentration) brings about processes which
return it towards normal.
receptor: a cell or tissue that is sensitive to a specific stimulus and
communicates with a control center by generating nerve impulses or
sending a chemical messenger
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effector: a tissue or organ that carries out an action in response to a
stimulus; muscles and glands are effectors.
stimulus (plural stimuli): a change in the external or internal
environment that is detected by a receptor and which may cause a
response
corrective action: a response or series of responses that return a
physiological factor to the set point so maintaining a constant
environment for the cells within the body.
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set point: the ideal value of a physiological factor that the body
controls in homeostasis.
hormone: a substance secreted by an endocrine gland that is carried
in blood plasma to another part of the body where it has an effect.
 positive feedback: a process in which a change in some parameter
such as a physiological factor brings about processes that move its
level further in the direction of the initial change.
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excretion: the removal of toxic or waste products of metabolism
from the body
 urea: a nitrogenous excretory product produced in the liver from the
deamination of amino acids
deamination: the breakdown of excess amino acids in the liver, by
the removal of the amine group; ammonia and, eventually, urea are
formed from the amine group
 The structure of the kidney
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs about the size of a fist,
located just below the ribcage on either side of the spine.
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nephron: the structural and functional unit of the kidney composed
of Bowman’s capsule and a tubule divided into three regions:
proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and distal convoluted
tubule
 Bowman’s capsule: the cup-shaped part of a nephron that surrounds
a glomerulus and collects filtrate from the blood
 glomerulus: a group of capillaries within the ‘cup’ of a Bowman’s
capsule in the cortex of the kidney proximal
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convoluted tubule: part of the nephron that leads from Bowman’s
capsule to the loop of Henle.
 loop of Henle: the part of the nephron between the proximal and distal
convoluted tubules.
distal convoluted tubule: part of the nephron that leads from the loop of
Henle to the collecting.
duct collecting duct: tube in the medulla of the kidney that carries urine
from the distal convoluted tubules of many nephrons to the renal pelvis
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 efferent arteriole: arteriole leading away from glomerular
capillaries
 ultrafiltration: filtration on a molecular scale separating small
molecules from larger molecules, such as proteins (e.g. the filtration
that occurs as blood flows through capillaries, especially those in
glomeruli in the kidney)
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 The a Section through the kidney to show the position of a nephron; b a
nephron. The fluid in the nephron is filtrate, formed from blood plasma. By
the time the fluid reaches the collecting duct it is urine
 Selective reabsorption
selective reabsorption: movement of certain substances from the
filtrate in nephrons back into the blood
Reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule
 Most of the reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted
tubule. The lining of this part of the nephron is made of a single layer
of cuboidal epithelial cells. These cells are adapted for their function
of reabsorption by having:
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• many microvilli on the surface facing the lumen (the luminal
membrane) of the nephron to increase the surface area for reabsorption
of substances from filtrate in the lumen
• many co-transporter proteins in the luminal membrane
tight junctions that hold adjacent (neighboring) cells together firmly
so that fluid cannot pass between the cells (all substances that are
reabsorbed must go through the cells)
 • many mitochondria to provide energy for sodium– potassium (Na+–
K+ ) pump proteins in the basal membranes of the cells
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Reabsorption in the loop Henle and collecting ducts:
Reabsorption in the loop of Henle and collecting duct plays a vital
role in maintaining body fluid balance by regulating how much water
stays in your body and how much is excreted as urine. Here's a
breakdown of their contributions:
Loop of Henle:
Main function: Create a concentration gradient in the surrounding
tissue, crucial for water reabsorption in the collecting duct.
Reabsorption: Primarily reabsorbs sodium and chloride ions, but not
water.
.
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•Mechanism: The thick ascending limb is actively reabsorbs sodium
ions using sodium-potassium pumps. This creates a high
concentration of solutes (saltier) in the surrounding tissue.
•Outcome: This creates a concentration gradient, with a salty inner
medulla and a more dilute outer medulla
Collecting Duct:
Main function: Reabsorb water based on body's needs.
Reabsorption: Can reabsorb a significant amount of water
depending on the hormone Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).

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Mechanism: ADH binds to receptors in the collecting duct, making
it more permeable to water. With a high concentration of solutes in
the surrounding tissue (created by the loop of Henle), water passively
diffuses out of the collecting duct and back into the bloodstream.
Outcome: When ADH is high (dehydration), more water is
reabsorbed, resulting in concentrated urine. When ADH is low (well-
hydrated), less water is reabsorbed, resulting in dilute urine.
 Reabsorption in the distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct
The first part of the distal convoluted tubule functions in the same
way as the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. The second part of
the distal tubule functions in the same way as the collecting duct.
 In the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, sodium ions are
actively pumped from the fluid in the tubule into the tissue fluid,
from where they pass into the blood. But potassium ions are actively
transported
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Relative concentrations of
three substances in the
different parts of nephrons
and in collecting ducts.
  Control of water content
 Osmoreceptors, the hypothalamus and ADH
osmoregulation: the control of the water potential of blood and tissue fluid
by controlling the water content and/or the concentration of ions, particularly
sodium ions.
 osmoreceptor: is type of receptor that detects changes in the water potential
of blood.
the nerve impulses are sent along the neurons to where they terminate in the
posterior pituitary gland . These impulses stimulate the release of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH), which is a peptide hormone made of nine amino acids.
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 Molecules of ADH enter the blood in capillaries and
are carried all over the body.
 How ADH affects the kidneys
ADH acts on the luminal membranes of the collecting ducts cells,
making them more permeable to water than usual.
This change in permeability is brought about by increasing the
number of the water-permeable channels known as aquaporins in the
luminal membranes of the collecting duct cells. The cells contain
ready-made vesicles that have many aquaporins in their membrane.
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 ADH molecules bind to receptor proteins which stimulate the
production of cyclic AMP (cAMP), which is a second messenger.
Cyclic AMP activates a signaling cascade leading to the
phosphorylation of the aquaporin molecules. The activation of the
aquaporin molecules causes the vesicles to move towards the luminal
membrane and fuse with it, so increasing the permeability of the
membrane to water.
 How ADH increase water reabsorption in
the collecting duct
 The control of blood glucose
 The control of blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health and
well-being. Maintaining stable blood sugar levels is essential for proper
bodily function and preventing complications associated with high or low
blood sugar.
 islet of Langerhans: a group of cells in the pancreas which secrete
glucagon and insulin
glucagon: a small peptide hormone secreted by the α cells in the
islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to bring about an increase in the
concentration of glucose in the blood
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insulin: a small peptide hormone secreted by the β cells in the islets
of Langerhans in the pancreas to bring about a decrease in the
concentration of glucose in the blood
Glycogenesis: synthesis of glycogen by addition of glucose
monomers.
 Increase in blood glucose concentration
An increase in blood glucose concentration, also known as
hyperglycemia, occurs when the level of sugar in the blood rises
above normal levels. This can happen for a variety of reasons,
including inadequate insulin production or function, excessive
carbohydrate intake, stress, illness, or certain medications.
 Decrease in blood glucose concentration
 Decrease in blood glucose concentration can lead to hypoglycemia,
which is when blood sugar levels drop below normal range.
Symptoms of low blood sugar may include shakiness, sweating,
confusion, dizziness, and weakness.
 Causes of low blood sugar can include skipping meals, excessive
exercise, or taking too much insulin or diabetes medication.
Treatment for low blood sugar typically involves consuming fast-
acting carbohydrates like glucose tablets, fruit juice, or candy to raise
blood sugar levels quickly.
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Severe hypoglycemia can be a medical emergency and may require
glucagon injection or emergency medical attention.
It is important for individuals with diabetes to be aware of the signs
and treatment of low blood sugar to prevent complications.
 Measuring the concentration of glucose in urine
 Urine glucose testing can be done using test strips or dipsticks,
which change color based on the amount of glucose present. Regular
monitoring of urine glucose levels can help individuals with diabetes
manage their condition effectively and prevent complications.
biosensor: a device that uses a biological material such as an
enzyme to measure the concentration of a chemical compound
  Homeostasis in plants
 It is important for plants as it is for animals to maintain constant
internal environment.
 For example mesophyll cells in leaves require a constant supply
of carbon dioxide if they to make use of light for photosynthesis.
 Stomata control the diffusion of gases in and out of leaves and
thus control the entry of carbon dioxide into leaves
  Opening and closing of stomata
Stomata show daily rhythms of opening Ann closing.
Opening during the day maintain the inward diffusion of carbon dioxide
and the outward diffusion of oxygen. It also allows the outward
diffusion of water vapour in transpiration.
Closure of stomata during the night when photosynthesis cannot occur
reduces rates of transpiration and conserves water.
 Stomata is open in response to:
 Increase in light intensity
Low carbon dioxide concentration in the air spaces within the leaf
  Stomata is close in response to:
Darkness
High carbon dioxide concentration in the spaces in the
leaf.
Low humidity
High temperature
Water stress
  Mechanism to open and close stomata
Guard cells open when they gain Water and become turgid
They close when they lose Water and become flaccid
Guard cells gain and lose Water by osmosis
  Opening
Environmental factors such as light intensity, temperature, and
carbon dioxide levels trigger the opening of stomata.
Specialized cells called guard cells, which surround each stoma,
respond to these environmental cues by absorbing water and ions
from neigh boring cells.
As the guard cells take in water and ions, their internal pressure,
called turgor pressure, increases.
The increase in turgor pressure causes the shape of the guard cells to
change. They become swollen and bow outwards, creating an opening
between them.
As the guard cell Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf
through the open stomata, while oxygen produced during
photosynthesis exits the leaf.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the leaf through the open
stomata, while oxygen produced during photosynthesis exits the leaf.
The opening and closing of stomata are finely regulated by factors
such as light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and plant
hormones to balance the needs for gas exchange and water
conservation.
  Closing of stomata
Environmental cues such as high temperatures or water scarcity
trigger stomata closure.
Guard cells lose water and ions, reducing turgor pressure.
Reduced pressure causes guard cells to become flaccid and close
together.
The stoma closes as the guard cells shrink and lose their bow-
shaped structure.
With the stoma closed, the exchange of gases like CO2 and O2, as
well as water vapor, is limited
Closing stomata helps conserve water by reducing transpiration.
Stomata closure is finely regulated by factors such as light intensity,
humidity, and plant hormones to balance water conservation with the
need for gas exchange and photosynthesis.
  Abscisic acid (ABA) & stomatal closure
Abscisic Acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that plays a vital role in
regulating a plant’s response to stress, including drought, salinity, and
temperature extremes.
One of its key functions is to induce stomatal closure, which helps
plants conserve water during dry periods.
When a plant experiences drought stress, the roots are the first to
sense the decrease in water availability.
Root cells then synthesize ABA.
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ABA travels to leaves and binds to guard cells.
ABA binding triggers the activation of ion channels in the guard cell
membrane.
This leads to the efflux (movement out) of potassium ions (K+) and
other solutes from the guard cells.
The loss of solutes reduces the guard cell’s turgor pressure, the
pressure exerted by the cell contents against the cell wall.
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As turgor pressure decreases, the guard cells become flaccid, and the
stomata begin to close.
This closure reduces the size of the stomatal pore, thereby
restricting gas exchange and water vapor loss through transpiration.