1 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

2 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

What is homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the maintenance of an organism’s

internal environment within set limits.

Body temperature and blood concentration

are both controlled by
homeostasis. The limits on these conditions
may be quite broad, but if
factors vary outside them it is damaging.

Internal conditions are regulated by the

endocrine and nervous systems, as
well as by behavioural patterns.

Organisms increase their survival chances by modifying their

internal environment in response to external changes.

3 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Why is homeostasis
important?
Enzyme activity – Enzymes operate best over a specific
range of conditions. By maintaining pH and temperature in the
body all enzyme-linked reactions proceed efficiently.

Cell size – Changes in the water potential of the blood will

affect the amount of water in the tissue fluid and cells. This
could cause animal cells to desiccate, or swell and burst.

Independence from external

conditions – Animals with a
constant internal environment can
maintain a constant level of activity
regardless of their environment.

4 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Negative feedback
To maintain their internal environment organisms need a self
regulating mechanism. In most animals this is achieved by
negative feedback.
Negative feedback works by initiating corrective mechanisms
whenever the internal environment deviates from its normal
or acceptable level.
Thermoregulation: an example of a negative feedback loop

body temperature corrective

increases mechanisms

normal normal
body body
temperature temperature
body temperature corrective
decreases mechanisms
5 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Producing negative feedback

6 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Positive feedback
In positive feedback, a deviation from further increase
normal conditions is amplified, leading
to a further deviation. positive
feedback
levels
Positive feedback is rare in biology increase
because it tends to produce harmful,
unstable conditions. set point

In early childbirth the release of the

hormone oxytocin stimulates uterine levels decrease
contractions. The contractions trigger a
positive feedback
positive feedback reaction. More
oxytocin is released, initiating more
further decrease
contractions.

7 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Nervous or endocrine control?
The nervous system and endocrine system are both
involved in controlling the internal conditions of a mammal.
nervous control endocrine control
electrical chemical
signal type
(action potential) (hormones)

reach the target relatively slow,

speed of signal cells in travelling in the
milliseconds bloodstream

duration of signal short lasting long lasting

When do you think endocrine control would be advantageous over

nervous control?

8 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Homeostasis in mammals

9 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Behavioural control
Kineses and taxes are simple behavioural mechanisms to
maintain homeostasis. Both involve the movement of
organisms in response to external stimuli.

In a kinesis, the animal responds to the presence and intensity

of the stimulus, but not its position. For example, the drier the
conditions, the faster a woodlouse moves, and the fewer turns it
makes. This simple behaviour tends to move woodlice
towards damp areas.

In a taxis, the direction of the

stimulus is important. For
example, woodlice move
directly away from light.

10 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Visualizing
homeostasis

11 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

12 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Thermoregulation
Animals regulate their body temperature using a process called
thermoregulation. Thermoregulation is crucial as it helps to
maintain the body at the optimal temperature for its enzymes.

Some animals live in

thermostable environments, such
as the open ocean, and have to do
very little to maintain their body
temperature. Instead their enzymes
are adapted to work at their
environmental temperature.

Environments with fluctuating temperatures provide the

greatest challenge for thermoregulation.

13 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Heat transfer

14 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

How is heat gained and
lost?

15 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Ectotherms and endotherms
There are two major strategies for thermoregulation in
the animal kingdom: endothermy and ectothermy.

Ectotherms do not exert physiological

control over their internal
body temperature. They instead rely on
external sources of heat to warm their bodies.
Despite this, many ectotherms maintain a
near-constant body temperature during their
hours of activity. Reptiles and
amphibians are
ectotherms.

Endotherms generate their heat metabolically. Most also maintain a

constant internal body temperature, higher than the external
environment. Mammals and birds are endotherms.
16 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Thermoregulation in ectotherms

17 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Thermoregulation in endotherms
Endotherms generate most of their heat metabolically. As
they are warmer than their environment they tend to lose body
heat to their surroundings.

Adaptations for heat conservation

include:
 Insulation – insulating layers
of fat, fur or
feathers to prevent
heat loss.
 Metabolism – metabolic rate can be
varied to generate more or less heat.

Endotherms also
use their skin to vary their rate of heat loss
18 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
The importance of the skin

19 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Thermoregulation in humans

20 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Hyperthermia and hypothermia
Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can lead to
hyperthermia. The body’s core temperature rises above 41°C
causing its thermoregulatory mechanisms to break down.

When this happens, positive feedback occurs and the person’s

body temperature can spiral out of control. A core
body temperature of 43°C and higher usually causes death.

If the body’s core temperature falls

below 35°C a person may suffer from
hypothermia. Again the body’s
thermoregulatory mechanisms fail
and positive feedback occurs leading to a
further decrease in temperature.

21 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Physiological thermoregulation

22 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Thermoregulatory control system

23 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

24 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Control of heart rate
The pumping of the heart supplies the body with fuel and
removeswaste. Thus heart rate must be responsive to the body’s
varying demands.

A high concentration of CO2 in the

blood indicates a high rate of aerobic
respiration. Increasing heart rate
increases the removal of CO2 and the
supply of O2 to the tissues, maintaining
homeostasis even during exercise.

Heart rate also affects blood pressure; this too is maintained at a

near-constant level by varying heart rate.

25 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Negative feedback controls heart
rate

26 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Adrenaline
Heart rate is also increased by the hormone adrenaline.

This is released from the adrenal glands after stimulation

by the sympathetic nervous system.

It targets the heart,

causing an increase in
the strength and speed of
heart contractions.
This is known as the fight-
or-flight response as it
prepares the body
for sustained exercise.

27 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Control of heart rate by blood pressure

28 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

29 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Controlling water levels
Osmoregulation is the process by which organisms
regulate the water content of the body.

Mammals need to ensure the volume of blood plasma and

concentration of dissolved substances in the blood and
tissue fluid stay relatively constant.

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

monitor the water potential of the blood.
This varies the amount of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) released into the
bloodstream. The kidneys respond to a change
in ADH concentration by adjusting the
volume and concentration of the urine.

30 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Osmoregulation
change detected by pituitary gland
osmoreceptors in the releases more ADH
hypothalamus
ADH increases
permeability of
must collecting ducts
decrease in conserve
water potential water
normal concentrated urine
water dilute urine
potential of
increase in
blood
water potential
must expel decrease in
excess permeability of
water collecting ducts
change detected by
pituitary gland
osmoreceptors in the
releases less ADH
hypothalamus
31 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Osmoregulatory control system

32 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

33 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009
Glossary

34 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

What’s the keyword?

35 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Mammalian homeostasis

36 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009

Multiple-choice
quiz

37 of 37 © Boardworks Ltd 2009