METEOROLOGY

AND
OCEANOGRAPHY
 01
3.1 EXPLAINRequirements
THE EFFECT OF SOLAR RADIATION TO
for navigation
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric Pressure

• Atmospheric pressure at any level (height above the

sea) is caused by the weight of air which lies above
that level. It follows, therefore, that pressure
decreases as height increases; for example,
atmospheric pressure at a height of approximately
5,500 meters is generally about half of its value at
ground level.
Atmospheric Pressure

• Surface pressure at any one point varies continually,

the average is about 1013 hPa at sea level.
 Atmospheric Pressure

• A wide variety of devices exists, mostly based upon

the use of an aneroid capsule, vibrating wire, or
quartz crystal which provide an output in electrical
analogue or digital form.
Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure and its variability in both time
and space are crucially important for numerical
weather prediction and for analysis and forecasting.
Most buoys measure atmospheric pressure by means
of digital aneroid barometers.
Atmospheric Pressure

• It is defined as the force per unit area exerted

against a surface by the weight of the air above that
surface. In the diagram below, the pressure at point
"X" increases as the weight of the air above it
increases.
Atmospheric Pressure

• The same can be said about decreasing pressure,

where the pressure at point "X" decreases if the
weight of the air above it also decreases.
Atmospheric Pressure

IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.quora.com/Why-does-atmospheric-pressure-always-decrease-with-altitude

Atmospheric Pressure

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/prs/def.rxml

Atmospheric Pressure

Thinking in terms of air molecules, if the number of air

molecules above a surface increases, there are more
molecules to exert a force on that surface and
consequently, the pressure increases.
Atmospheric Pressure

The opposite is also true, where a reduction in the

number of air molecules above a surface will result
in a decrease in pressure. Atmospheric pressure is
measured with an instrument called a "barometer",
which is why atmospheric pressure is also referred
to as barometric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure

In aviation and television weather reports, pressure is

given in inches of mercury ("Hg), while
meteorologists use millibars (mb), the unit of
pressure found on weather maps.
Atmospheric Pressure

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/prs/def.rxml

As an example, consider a "unit area" of 1 square
inch. At sea level, the weight of the air above this unit
area would (on average) weigh 14.7 pounds! That
means pressure applied by this air on the unit area
would be 14.7 pounds per square inch. Meteorologists
use a metric unit for pressure called a millibar and the
average pressure at sea level is 1013.25 millibars.
Note
• Atmospheric pressure decreases with height above
sea level. It acts in all directions. The surface pressure
rises if air is added to the 'column' above the surface,
and vice versa.
Note

• The basic unit of pressure is N/m2.

• 1 millibar = 10-3 bar = 102 N/m2 The atmospheric
pressure at sea level normally varies between about
940 mbar and 1050 mbar.
IMAGE SOURCE: Chapter1 Properties of the Atmosphere.pdf.p.8
IMAGE SOURCE: Chapter1 Properties of the Atmosphere.pdf.p.9
• Fig.1.6 shows a mercury barometer. The dish at
the bottom is open so that air can push down
on the surface of the mercury. A vacuum exists
in the upright tube. Air applying pressure on the
surface of the mercury pushes the mercury up
into the tube. The higher the pressure, the
stronger the air’s push and the higher the
column of mercury rises.
• As atmospheric pressure fluctuates from day to
day, the height of the column changes. When the
pressure equals mean sea-level pressure
(1013.25 mb), the column height is exactly 29.92
in.
IMAGE SOURCE: Chapter1 Properties of the Atmosphere.pdf.p.9
FUN FACT
Dangerous Weather is Always Nearby

The weather forecast for today is for a temperature of -46C

and 100 knots wind. The lack of oxygen in the air will likely
cause suffocation in 2-3 mins. Does this sound like a
miserable day? On many days, this is an accurate forecast
for a location only 10 km from your home. Getting there
wont be easy-you have to go straight up. The next time you
take a commercial airline flight, think of these conditions-
they are right outside the window!
 02
3.2 OBTAIN ATMOSPHERIC
History PRESSURE READING
FROM THE SHIP’S ANEROID BAROMETER
How does it work
The aneroid barometer is operated by a metal cell
containing only a very small amount of air, or a
series of such cells joined together. The increased
air pressure causes the sides of the cell or cells to
come closer together.
How does it work
High and low-pressure systems in the atmosphere
move around the earth’s surface and the movements
shown on the face of a barometer attached to the
wall of your home indicate the changes of pressure
as they occur directly above you.
These changes, when they are considered together
with wind, temperature, moisture and cloud
indications, can be a great help in forecasting
approaching weather.
How does it work
How does it work
Reading your barometer
• To read your barometer, first tap the glass lightly,
but firmly, to ensure that the linkage mechanism
is not sticking. Your barometer will most likely be
marked in tens of hectopascals (990, 1000, 1010
etc.) with further graduations given for each
hectopascal, which enable it to be read
reasonably easily to the nearest half hectopascal.
 03
Requirements
3.3 CONVERT DIFFERENT UNITS OF ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSUREfor navigation
MEASUREMENT UNITS
• The standard unit of atmospheric pressure is
the atmosphere (atm). One standard
atmosphere, which is also referred to as one
atmosphere is equivalent to:
• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa (pascal)
• 1 atm = 1,013.25 hPa (hectopascal)
• 1 atm = 1,013.25 mbar (millibar)
MEASUREMENT UNITS
• The standard unit of atmospheric pressure is
the atmosphere (atm). One standard
atmosphere, which is also referred to as one
atmosphere is equivalent to:
• 1 atm = 760 mmHg (millimeters of mercury)
• 1 atm = 29.9213 inches Hg (inches of mercury)
• 1 atm = 14.6959 psi (pound per square inch)
MEASUREMENT UNITS
• 1 millibar = 0.0295333727 inches of mercury
• 1 mmHg = 133.322 pascals (Pa)
• 1 inHg = 3386.39 pascals (Pa)
• mmHg value x 133.322 Pa = inHg value x 3386.39
Pa
• mmHg value = inHg value x 25.4
 04
3.4 LOCATE Requirements
HIGH AND LOW PRESSURE REGIONS
for navigation
ON THE WEATHER CHART
Isobar
An isobar is a line, drawn on a weather chart,
which passes through all points of equal barometric
pressure. Isobars are spaced at intervals of one or
more hPa, depending on the scale of the chart. The
isobaric patterns which they form enable us to
recognize definite pressure systems such as
depressions, anticyclones, ridges, etc, each of
which is associated with its own characteristics
weather.
Lines of Constant of Pressure

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/prs/isb.rxml

Lines of Constant of Pressure
The diagram depicts a pair of sample isobars. At
every point along the top isobar, the pressure is 996
mb while at every point along the bottom isobar, the
pressure is 1000 mb. Points above the 1000 mb
isobar have a lower pressure and points below that
isobar have a higher pressure.
Lines of Constant of Pressure
Sea-level pressure reports are available every hour,
which means that isobar maps are likewise
available every hour. The solid blue contours (in the
map below) represent isobars and the numbers
along selected contours indicate the pressure value
of that particular isobar
Lines of Constant of Pressure

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/prs/isb.rxml

Isobars Interpretation

The relationship between isobar spacing and

wind speed is that the closer the isobar spacing
then the stronger the wind speed. The spacing
between isobars represents a pressure
differential between those two isobars.
Isobars Interpretation
When two isobars are closer together then the
pressure changes at a greater rate over
distance. It is pressure differences that set the air
in motion. When isobars are spaced far apart
then the pressure changes more gradually over
distance and thus the wind speed is weaker.
 Lines of Constant Pressure

Interpret the isobars below.

IMAGE SOURCE: https://smokespotters.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-bureau-of-meteorology-has-page-on.html
Lines of Constant of Pressure
• Such maps are useful for locating areas of high
and low pressure, which correspond to the
positions of surface cyclones and anticyclones. A
map of isobars is also useful for locating
strong pressure gradients, which are identifiable by
a tight packing of the isobars. Stronger winds are
associated with stronger pressure gradients.
 05
3.5 EXPLAINRequirements
THE IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSUREfor
SYSTEMS ON PRECIPITATION
navigation
PATTERN
Atmospheric pressure systems play a crucial
role in determining precipitation patterns
around the globe. Here's a basic breakdown
of how they affect weather and precipitation:
High-Pressure Systems: High-pressure systems,
also known as anticyclones, are areas where the
atmospheric pressure is higher than the
surrounding areas. They are generally associated
with clear skies and fair weather because the
high pressure inhibits upward movement of air.
This means that the moist air doesn't rise and
cool to form clouds and precipitation. Instead,
the air in high-pressure systems often descends,
leading to compression and warming, which
discourages cloud formation and precipitation.
Low-Pressure Systems: Low-pressure
systems, or cyclones, are areas where the
atmospheric pressure is lower than the
surrounding areas. These systems are
typically associated with cloudy, rainy, or
snowy weather. This is because the lower
pressure allows for air to rise. As the air
rises, it cools and the water vapor within it
condenses to form clouds and precipitation.
Frontal Systems: A front is a boundary
separating two masses of air of different
densities. Fronts are classified into four types:
cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts, and
occluded fronts. Each type of front leads to
different weather patterns. For example, a
warm front occurs when a warm air mass slides
over a cold air mass, causing the warm air to
rise and form clouds and possibly precipitation.
Conversely, a cold front happens when a cold air
mass pushes under a warm air mass, forcing the
warm air to rise quickly, often resulting in
thunderstorms and heavy rainfall.
Tropical Systems: In tropical regions, low-
pressure systems can develop into more
severe weather phenomena such as
hurricanes, typhoons, or cyclones. These
systems can produce extreme amounts of
precipitation due to the warm, moist air in
tropical regions.
In summary, atmospheric pressure systems
significantly impact precipitation patterns,
with high-pressure systems generally
leading to clear, dry weather, and low-
pressure systems often resulting in
cloudiness and precipitation.