m a n a g e m e n t 2e

Hitt/Black/Porter

Lesson 8:
Motivation

PowerPoint
PowerPoint slides
slides by
by
Susan
Susan A.
A. Peterson,
Peterson, Scottsdale
Scottsdale Community
Community College
College
Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Analyze the motivational forces present in a
specific situation
Identify the sources of an individual’s motivation
Differentiate between content and process theories
of motivation and indicate how each can be helpful
in analyzing a given motivational situation

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 2

Learning Objectives

Explain how job enrichment can influence an

employee's motivation
Compare and contrast the various approaches to
reinforcement and describe their relative
advantages and disadvantages for use by
managers
Describe how values and attitudes toward work
can influence motivation

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 3

What Is Motivation?

Motivation:
Is a set of forces that
energize, direct, and
sustain behavior
Can come from:
- Internal “push” forces
or
- External “pull” forces

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 4

Sources of Motivation
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
(PUSH FORCES) (PULL FORCES)

Characteristics of Characteristics of Characteristics of

THE INDIVIDUAL THE JOB THE WORK SITUATION
(examples) (examples) (examples)

Needs Feedback Immediate social

 For security  For security environment
 For self-esteem  For self-esteem  Supervisor(s)
 For achievement
 Workgroup members
 For power
Work load  Subordinates
Attitudes
 About self
 About job Tasks Organizational actions
 About supervisor  Variety  Rewards and
 About organization  Scope compensation
Goals  Availability of training
 Task completion Discretion  Pressure for high levels
 Performance level  How job is performed of output
 Career advancement
Adapted from Exhibit 10.1
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 5
Motivation Theories

Content Theories Process Theories

Personal needs that How different variables

workers attempt to satisfy. can combine to
Focus Features in the work influence the amount
environment that satisfy of effort put forth by
a worker’s needs. employees.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Equity Theory

McClelland’s Acquired Expectancy Theory
Theories Need Theory Social Cognitive Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Goal-Setting Theory

Adapted from Exhibit 10.2

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 6
Content Theories of Motivation

Content Theories

Personal needs that

workers attempt to satisfy.
Focus Features in the work
environment that satisfy
a worker’s needs.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theories Focusing on

McClelland’s Acquired INTERNAL Factors
Need Theory
Theories
Theory Focusing on
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory EXTERNAL Factors

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 7

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Humans have five

Self- needs arranged in
Actualization
hierarchy of strength
Esteem and influence
Individuals:
Belongingness
Satisfy most basic
(prepotent) needs first
Safety
Move to the next level of
needs after preceding
Physiological
needs is satisfied

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 8

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

ERG = existence,
relatedness, growth
Growth
Different levels of needs
can be active at the
same time
Relatedness
People can move back
to a lower level need
even after a high level
need has been met Existence

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 9

Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories

Highest-order
needs

Self-
actualization Growth
Esteem

Belongingness Relatedness

Safety
Most essential Existence
(prepotent) Physiological
needs
Maslow’s Need Alderfer’s Needs
Hierarchy Categories Hierarchy Categories
Adapted from Exhibit 10.3
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 10
Acquired Needs Theory

Individuals have three “learned”

needs: Power, affiliation,
achievement
People with need for
achievement:
- Work on tasks of moderate
difficulty
- Take moderate risks
- Take personal responsibility
for one’s own actions
- Receive specific and concrete
feedback on one’s own
performance

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 11

Two-Factor Theory
Motivators:
Factors directly Hygiene Factors: Elements
related to doing associated with conditions
a job surrounding the job

Supervision
Recognition

Achievement Growth Compensation Benefits

Job

Nature
Responsibility of the Working Relations with
work conditions co-workers

Adapted from Exhibit 10.4

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 12
Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators

From the state of being neither

satisfied nor dissatisfied,
Motivators
motivators can impel an
Intrinsic factors
employee’s motivation and related to the
performance to higher levels doing of the
job itself

Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

Hygiene-Factors
Extrinsic factors Hygiene factors must be
related to conditions satisfied first, leading to a
surrounding state of being neither
the job satisfied nor dissatisfied
Adapted from Exhibit 10.5
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 13
Job Characteristics Model

Core Job Critical Psychological States Outcomes

Characteristics
• Experienced High:
• Skill variety meaningfulness • Internal work
• Task identity of the work motivation
• Task significance • Experienced • “Growth”
• Feedback responsibility for satisfaction
• Autonomy outcomes of the work • Work effectiveness
• Knowledge of the actual • General job
results of the work satisfaction
activities

Adapted from Exhibit 10.6

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 14
Core Job Characteristics

Core Job Definition Example

Characteristics

Skill The degree to which a job requires a The aerospace engineer must be
variety of different activities in able to create blueprints, calculate
Variety carrying out the work, involving the tolerances, provide leadership to
use of a number of different skills the work group, and give
and talents of the person. presentations to upper
management.

Task The degree to which a job requires The event manager handles all the
Identity completion of a “whole” and plans for the annual executive
identifiable piece of work, that is, retreat, attends the retreat, and
doing a job from beginning to end receives information on its
with a viable outcome. success from the participants.

Task The degree to which a job has a
Significance substantial impact on the lives of
other people, whether those people
are in the immediate organization or
in the world at large.
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing
The finance manager devises a
new benefits plan to improve
health coverage for all employees.
Adapted from Exhibit 10.7
15
Core Job Characteristics (cont.)
Core Job Definition
Characteristics
Autonomy The degree to which a job provides
substantial freedom, independence,
and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out.
Feedback The degree to which carrying out
from the the work activities required by the
job provides the individual with
Job
direct and clear information about
the effectiveness of his or her
performance.
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing
Example
R&D scientists are linked via the
company intranet, allowing them to
post their ideas, ask questions,
and propose solutions at any hour
of the day, whether at the office, at
home, or on the road.
The lathe operator knows he is
cutting his pieces correctly, as
very few are rejected by the
workers in the next production
area.
Adapted from Exhibit 10.7
16
Process Theories of Motivation

Process Theories

How different variables

can combine to
Focus influence the amount
of effort put forth by
employees.

Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Theories Social Cognitive Theory
Goal-Setting Theory

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 17

Equity Theory
Focuses on individuals’
comparisons of their own
circumstances to those of
others
Inputs (age, experience,
education, etc.)
Outcomes (salary, benefits,
titles, perks, etc.)
Ratios of an individual’s
input/outcome versus that
ratio of another person or
people

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 18

Equity Theory

IF: IS: THEN: AND I AM MOTIVATED TO:

The ratio of my Equal to the I am Do nothing.
outcomes to my ratio of the satisfied
inputs other’s
outcomes to
inputs

The ratio of my Less then (<) I feel Choose between:

outcomes to my the ratio of the dissatisfied
Increasing my own outcomes
inputs other’s
outcomes to Decreasing my own inputs
inputs Reevaluating the other’s inputs
Changing the referent
Leaving the situation

Adapted from Exhibit 10.8

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 19
Expectancy Theory

Focuses on thought processes people use when

faced with choosing among alternatives
Three variables affect motivation:
- Effort-to-performance (E  P): probability that
certain effort leads to certain performance
- Performance-to-outcome (P  O): probability that
certain performance leads to certain outcome
- Valence (V): anticipated value that a person
attaches to the outcome

Effort = (E  P) x (P  O) x V

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 20

Components of Expectancy Theory

Outcome
(V: I do or do not
Effort Performance
value recognition
from my supervisor)

E P PO
(I believe high effort (I believe high performance
will lead to good will lead to recognition
performance) from my supervisor)

E = effort P = performance
O = outcome V = valence
Adapted from Exhibit 10.9
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 21
Expectancy Theory
To influence employee motivation, managers should:
Identify rewards that are valued
Strengthen beliefs that their efforts will lead to
valued rewards
Clarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where
they should direct their efforts
Make sure that the desired rewards under your
control are given directly following particular levels
of performance
Provide levels and amounts of rewards that are
consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 22

Social Cognitive Theory

Self-efficacy:
A person’s confidence
that he or she can
accomplish a given task
in a specific situation
High self-efficacy beliefs
are associated with
better work-related
performance

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 23

Social Cognitive Theory:
Methods to Increase Self-efficacy

Enactive Vicarious
Mastery Learning

Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy

Physiological or
Verbal
Psychological
Persuasion
Arousal

Adapted from Exhibit 10.10

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 24
Goal-Setting Theory

Human action is directed by

conscious goals and
intentions
Two basic premises:
- More challenging (higher or
harder) goals, if accepted,
result in higher levels of
effort than easier goals
- Specific goals result in
higher levels of effort than
vague goals

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 25

Reinforcements and Consequences

Motivation
Technique

To encourage To discourage
good behavior poor behavior
or performance or performance

Positive Negative
Punishment Extinction
Reinforcement Reinforcement

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 26

Reinforcements and Consequences

Desirable consequences
that increase the likelihood Positive
of behavior being repeated Reinforcement
in the future
Rewards given should be: Example:
- Equitable
Salesperson
- Efficient performs well
- Available gets an extra
- Not exclusive bonus for the
- Visible year
- Reversible

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 27

Reinforcements and Consequences

Removal of undesirable
consequences that Negative
increase the likelihood of Reinforcement
behavior being repeated in
the future
Example:
Can backfire if used
Salesperson
incorrectly who performs
well is
removed from
territory that
has difficult
customers

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 28

Reinforcements and Consequences

Unwanted consequences
following undesirable
behavior to decrease the Punishment
likelihood that it will be
repeated
Example:
Punishments are
Salesperson
discouraged in most who performs
organizations today, as poorly is fired
they may be inappropriate or demoted
or too negative

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 29

Reinforcements and Consequences

The absence of positive

consequences for
behavior, lessening the Extinction
likelihood of that behavior
in the future
Example:
Salesperson
tells a tasteless
joke and is
ignored in the
hopes of
discouraging
such joking

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 30

Reinforcement Approaches

Reinforcement Managerial Effect Example

Approach Action

Positive Provide Increase probability Highway construction supervisor

reinforcement desirable of behavior being receives bonus for each day a
consequence repeated project is completed ahead of
schedule.
Negative Remove Increase probability Management stops raising output
reinforcement undesirable of behavior being quotas each time workers exceed
consequence repeated them.
Punishment Provide Decrease probability Habitually tardy crew member is
undesirable of behavior being fined the equivalent of one hour’s
consequence repeated pay each day he is late to work.

Extinction Remove Decrease probability Group member stops making

desirable of behavior being unsolicited suggestions when team
consequence repeated leader no longer mentions them in
group meetings.

Adapted from Exhibit 10.11

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 31
Planned Programs of Positive
Reinforcement

1. Specify desired performance

precisely
2. Measure desired behaviors
3. Provide frequent positive
consequences for specified
behaviors
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of
the program

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 32

Social Influences on Motivation

Immediate
Work
Group

Motivation

Supervisors
Organization’s
And
Culture
Subordinates

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 33

Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward
Work

Values
- Affect what kinds of
behaviors individuals will
find rewarding and satisfying
Attitudes toward work
- Work centrality
- Degree of general
importance that working
has in the life of an
individual
- Differs between cultures

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 34

Differences in Core Values

American Japanese Arabic

Competition Group harmony Reputation

CORE
Risk-taking Belonging Family security
VALUES
Material Religious belief
possessions
Social
Freedom recognition

Adapted from Exhibit 10.12

© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 35
Work Centrality: Country Differences

Germany 4.29

Israel 4.89

Japan 5.20

United States 4.79

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Adapted from Exhibit 10.13
© 2008 Prentice-Hall Business Publishing 36